Ethnopolitical Violence, Transitional Justice and Peacebuilding in Kenya: Nurturing a Tripartite Hybridity By Peter Karari A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in the Partial Fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Peace and Conflict Studies University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copy Right © 2014 by Peter Karari 1 DECLARATION “I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.” Peter Karari, October 10, 2014 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank our almighty God for his grace, favor, knowledge, and soundness of mind in the course of writing my doctoral thesis. Secondly, I thank myself for the un-fatigued efforts and resilience to work tirelessly in the course of my research and the compilation of my doctoral thesis. I cannot forget Margaret Mitchell (1948) whose novel ‘gone with the wind’ nurtured my philosophy of life thus: whatever a man has done, a man can do. The resilience of her main character, Scarlet O’Hara taught me to work hard, to persevere, to be patient, to hope, to be resilient, and to strive for the excellence. Special thanks go to my family comprising my wife Mercy; daughters Precious and Joy; and Son Peace for your daily prayers, encouragement, and support in the course of my doctoral studies. My doctoral studies constituted a huge undertaking which took part of my family’s precious time. Despite the challenges that we all faced as a family in the course of my doctoral studies, your love and understanding continued to inspire and motivate my progress; here we are at last! This work could not have been possible without the generous timely support and encouragement from my thesis committee at the University of Manitoba, comprising of my advisor Dr. Andrew Woolford, Adjunct Peace and Conflict Studies, Professor and head of the Department of Sociology; Dr. Sean Byrne, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies and Director, Arthur Mauro Centre for Peace and Justice; Dr. Denis Bracken, Professor, Department of Social Work and Adjunct Peace and Conflict Studies; and Dr. Rick Linden, Professor, Department of Sociology. Special thanks goes to my external examiner, Dr. Jacqueline Klopp, Centre for Sustainable Urban Development, Columbia University. To all of you, God bless you abundantly. I cannot forget the Mauro Centre ‘family’ for your support, encouragement and for believing in me. From September 2009, when I joined the Centre, I found love, passion, and unity that surpassed comprehension. I met good and special people who generously helped, guided and counselled me. Special thanks go to Sean and Jessica for your special support, encouragement, follow-ups, and prayers. I cannot forget my PhD group that comprised of Alkar Kumar, Jodi Read, Paul Cormier, Laura Reimer, and Robin Neustaeter. I have a special space in my heart for the special stories that we shared, the support, and encouragement that we gave to each other. Amidst all the challenges, you all made my life more bearable. The Mauro Centre will remain part of my extended family. Thank you! Finally, I thank everyone else who supported me and my family in one way or another during my doctoral studies. I cannot be able to repay you back for your kindness, but I pray that our good God to bless you, meet your special needs, and satisfy the desires of your heart! Peter Karari, 2014 3 DEDICATION This doctoral thesis is dedicated to my family including my wife Mercy, my daughters Precious and Joy, and my son Peace for their unfatigued support in the course of my doctoral studies. May the pains of this doctoral journey translate into gains in the life of our family! Peter Karari, 2014 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFATORY PARTS Declaration…………………………………………………………………………….……..2 Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………….…...…….3 Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….……...4 Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………….…5 List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………..........10 Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………..............13 1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..…15 1.1. Background Information………………………………………………………….. 15 1.2. Chapter Overviews…………………………………….………………………….. 23 1.3. Conclusion………………………..…………………………..…………….. ……. 31 2. CHAPTER TWO: CONTEXT DESCRIPTION………………………….…………….32 2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………….……….……….32 2.2. Demographic Map of Kenya…………………………………………………..….. 32 2.3. Pre-Colonial Kenya……………………………………………………….............. 33 2.4. Colonial Injustices Against the Mau Mau Freedom Fighters…………………...….34 2.5. Post-Colonial Political Ethnicization of Leadership and Governance………….…..37 2.6. Colonial and post-Colonial Preferential Administration of Structures of Privilege...39 2.7. Colonial and Post-Colonial Political Alliances, Alignments and Mobilizations…...42 2.8. Colonial and Post-Colonial Massacres …………………………………………......45 2.8.1. The Lari Massacre…………………………………………………………... 45 2.8.2. The Chuka Massacre………………………………………………………... 47 2.8.3. The Bulla (Garissa) Massacre………………………………………………..47 2.8.4. The Wagalla Massacre……………………………………………………….48 2.8.5. The Hola Massacre………………………………………………………..….48 2.8.6. Tana River Massacres……………………………………………………..…49 2.8.7. The Sabaot Land Defence Forces (SLDF) Conflict………………………….50 5 2.9. The Land Issue………………………………………………………………….........52 2.9.1. Ethnopolitical Violence and the Land Issue in the Rift Valley…………….…55 2.9.2. Ethnopolitical Violence and the Land Issue in the Coast Province of Kenya...57 2.9.3. Ethnopolitical Violence and the Case of Kenyan Northern Frontier District....64 2.10. Conclusion………………………………………………….…………………72 3. CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND………………………………...74 3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...74 3.2. Theories of Ethnic Conflict……………………………………….………. ……...….75 3.2.1. Instrumentalist Perspectives………………………………….……………. ....76 3.2.2. The Social Constructionists………………………………….…. ………….…79 3.3. Transitional Justice Theories……………………………………….….. ………….....83 3.3.1. Retributive Justice………………………………………….……………….... 85 3.3.2. Restorative Justice………………………………………….……………........ 89 3.4. Theories of Conflict Management and Resolution…………………….… ………......93 3.4.1. Indigenous Approaches to peacebuilding.…………………………………......94 3.4.2. Elicitive and Prescriptive Approaches…………………………………………96 3.4.3. Humans Needs Approach………………………………………………….......100 3.4.4. Post-conflict Reconstruction……………………………………………….….101 3.5. Theories of Peacebuilding and Conflict Transformation……………….…………....105 3.5.1. Psycho-social Approaches…………. ……………………………………..….108 3.5.2. Integrative problem solving approach……………………………………... ...110 3.5.3. Problem Solving Workshops……………………………………………….....114 3.6. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………..….116 4. CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………..119 4.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..119 4.2. Rationale for methodology……………………………………………….…….…….120 4.2.1. Narrative/Storytelling ………………………………………………………...120 4.2.2. Qualitative Interviewing……………………………………………………....128 6 4.3. Scope and Study Population………………………………………………………... 136 4.4. Sampling Procedures, Recruitment, and Access……………………………….……137 4.5. Role of the Researcher…………………………………………………………...….138 4.6. Pilot Testing……………………………………………………………………….…139 4.7. Data Collection Instruments Methods and Instruments…………….…………….…140 4.8. Personal Challenges, Limitations and Biases………………………………….….…142 4.9. Data Collection Procedure………………………………………………………..….143 4.10. Data Analysis…………. ………………………………………………….….143 4.11. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………147 5. CHAPTER FIVE : THE ROOT CAUSES OF ETHNOPOLITICAL VIOLENCE IN KENYA (THE KENYAN CHALLENGE)………………………………………………..………. 149 5.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….. 149 5.2. Colonial and Post-Colonial Legacies of Leadership and Governance ………………150 5.3. Historical Injustices…………………………………………………………………..155 5.3.1. The Land Issue………………………………………………………………...155 5.3.2. Socioeconomic inequalities……………………………………………………157 5.3.3. Justice in Kenya………………………………………………………………..160 5.4. National Ideology and Ethnic Identity………………………………………………..164 5.5. Institutional and Constitutional Crisis………………………………………………..169 5.6. Formal, informal and Civic Education…………………………………………….….171 5.7. Findings and Conclusion…………...………………………………………………... 175 6. CHAPTER SIX: PEACEBUILDING, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, AND RESOLUTION (THE KENYAN SOLUTION)………………………………………………………….... 182 6.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………….…..182 6.2. Social Economic Empowerment………………………………………………….…..183 6.3. Good Leadership and Governance ………………………………………………..…. 189 6.4. Institutional and Constitutional Reforms………………………………………….…..195 6.5. Peace, Security, and Safety…………………………………………………………... 200 6.6. Justice, Equity, Equality, and Fairness ……………………………………………….204 7 6.7. Positive Socialization and Education ……………………………………………….. 208 6.8. National Ideology and Identity …………………………………………………….…212 6.9. Findings and Conclusion……..……………………………………………………….216 7. CHAPTER SEVEN: TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE, RECONCILIATION AND CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION (THE KENYAN FUTURE)………………………………………224 7.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………224 7.2. Non-Violent Systemic Revolution and Regime Change………………………………225 7.3. Cross-community Interactions, Dialogue, and Sharing……………………………….228