How well can an amoeba climb? Yoshio Fukui*†‡, Taro Q. P. Uyeda§, Chikako Kitayama§, and Shinya Inoue´ † *Cell and Molecular Biology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611-3008; §Biomolecular Research Group, National Institute for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8562, Japan; and †Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1005 Contributed by Shinya Inoue´, June 22, 2000 We report here our efforts to measure the crawling force generated Generation of Myosin Knockout Mutants. Generation of a mutant by cells undergoing amoeboid locomotion. In a centrifuge micro- cell line (A5) that lacks heavy chain genes for myosin II, myosin scope, acceleration was increased until amoebae of Dictyostelium IA, and myosin IB will be described in detail elsewhere (C.K. and discoideum were ‘‘stalled’’ or no longer able to ‘‘climb up.’’ The T.Q.P.U., unpublished work). Briefly, a plasmid carrying Dic- ‘‘apparent weight’’ of the amoebae at stalling rpm in myosin mutants tyostelium myosin II heavy chain gene (15) was modified such depended on the presence of myosin II (but not myosins IA and IB) and that a fragment corresponding to the carboxyl quarter of the paralleled the cortical strength of the cells. Surprisingly, however, the motor domain and the amino half of the tail were replaced with cell stalled not only in low-density media as expected but also in a blasticidin resistance cassette. The DNA fragment of the media with densities greater than the cell density where the buoyant disrupted gene was excised and electroporated into a cell line force should push the amoeba upward. We find that the leading lacking myosins IA and IB (16). Blasticidin resistant colonies pseudopod is bent under centrifugal force in all stalled amoebae, suggesting that this pseudopod is very dense indeed. This finding also were isolated, and the double-crossover gene disruption was suggests that directional cell locomotion against resistive forces confirmed by Southern hybridization. Absence of myosin II requires a turgid forward-pointing pseudopod, most likely sustained heavy chain was further confirmed by Western blot and pheno- by cortical actomyosin II. typic assays. Centrifuge Polarizing Microscope. The centrifuge polarizing micro- eneration of mechanical forces is essential for cell locomo- scope was designed by S.I. and developed in collaboration with Gtion, division, embryonic development, and morphogenesis (1–5). Although the forces involved in some of these biological Hamamatsu Photonics (Hamamatsu City, Japan) and Olympus activities have been measured as mechanical properties in local Optical Company (Tokyo) (11). Cells were suspended in stan- regions of living cells (6–9), few measurements have been made dard buffer and allowed to settle on the strain-free glass cover of the maximum ability of an entire cell to propel itself. An of the centrifuge observation chamber. The image of the spec- example includes the maximum propulsive force of 7 ϫ 103 pN imen spinning in the rotor (at a radius of 7.5 cm) at up to 11,700 generated by a swimming ciliated protozoan, Paramecium rpm is frozen stroboscopically by brief (6-ns) laser flashes that caudatum, measured by using a centrifuge microscope (10). illuminate the specimen as it transits between the stationary Little is known, in particular, of the propulsive forces that can be condenser and objective lenses. The 532-nm wavelength image, generated by any cell undergoing amoeboid movement. formed by a ϫ40͞0.55 numerical aperture objective lens, was In the present paper, we report the maximum ‘‘apparent weight,’’ captured at video rate by a Hamamatsu interference-fringe-free or centrifugal force against which wild-type and myosin mutants of CCD camera. The original image was recorded into Sony Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae were able to crawl ‘‘upward.’’ ED-Beta tapes as Y͞C signals at video rate through a digital The small mass of the amoebae required the use of a recently signal converter (Sony model DSC-1024G). developed centrifuge polarizing microscope capable of generating ϫ fields of greater than 11,465 g (Earth’s gravitational accelera- Calibration of Medium Density. The density of stock and diluted ␮ tion), with image resolution of better than 1 m in differential Percoll solution (17) (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was cal- interference or Nomarsky contrast microscopy (11). culated from the equations below: As described below, mutant amoebae stall or cease to be able to crawl up against the imposed apparent weight at characteristic ␳ ϭ ͑ ϫ ␳ ͒ ϩ ͑ ϫ ␳ ͒͑͞ ϩ ͒ 100 Va a Vb b Va Vb centrifugal accelerations, so they are at least able to overcome ␳ ϭ ͑ ϫ ␳ ͒ ϩ ͑ ϫ ␳ ͒͑͞ ϩ ͒ that much external force. Those lacking the muscle type myosin, i V100 100 Vb b V100 Vb myosin II, stall at very much lower centrifugal acceleration. However, we will show that the mechanism of stalling, or Where inability of the amoeba to maintain directional locomotion ϭ ͞ against the centrifugal field, in fact depends on the very high Va volume of 23% (v v) Percoll (from bottle). ϭ ϫ local density of its leading pseudopod rather than the apparent Vb volume of 20 standard buffer (appropriately weight felt by the whole amoeba. Even in media whose density diluted to provide final ϫ1 standard buffer). is greater than that of the whole amoeba, amoebae lacking V ϭ volume of stock Percoll (21.85%). myosin II are unable to sustain the forward protrusion of the 100 high-density pseudopod that is apparently needed to sustain ␳ ϭ ͞ ϭ ͞ 3 directional amoeboid locomotion against the external field. a density of 23% (v v) Percoll 1.130 gram cm . ␳ ϭ ϫ ϭ ͞ 3 b density of 20 standard buffer 1.005 gram cm . ␳ ϭ ϭ ͞ 3 Materials and Methods 100 density of stock Percoll 1.124 gram cm . ␳ ϭ Cells and Cell Culture. D. discoideum wild type NC4 (12), axenic i density of diluted Percoll. strain Ax3 (13, 14), myosin II heavy chain knockout mutant HS1 (mhcAϪ) (15), and a triple myosin knockout mutant A5 (mhcAϪ͞myoIAϪ͞myoIBϪ) were cultured as described previ- ‡To whom reprint requests should be addressed at: Cell and Molecular Biology, Ward 7-342, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611- ously (12–15). Before observation, the growth phase cells were ϫ 3008. E-mail: [email protected]. washed from medium by centrifugation (100 g, 1.5 min) and The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This incubated overnight at 18C° in a standard buffer (10 mM article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” in accordance with 18 U.S.C. ͞ ͞ ͞ NaCl 10 mM KCl 3 mM CaCl2 2.5 mM Pipes, pH 6.8). §1734 solely to indicate this fact. 10020–10025 ͉ PNAS ͉ August 29, 2000 ͉ vol. 97 ͉ no. 18 Downloaded by guest on September 24, 2021 Table 1. Apparent weight and stalling rpm for wild-type and myosin knockout mutants in Dictyostelium Cell lines* NC4 Ax3 HS1 A5 Calculation of reduced mass of amoebae Volume† (ϫ10Ϫ10 cm3) 3.78 Ϯ 1.44 4.87 Ϯ 1.80 4.26 Ϯ 1.34 4.87 Ϯ 1.69 Density‡ (gram͞cm3) 1.066 1.065 1.063 1.063 ⌬Mass§ (ϫ10Ϫ11 gram) 2.31 Ϯ 0.70 2.92 Ϯ 0.70 2.47 Ϯ 0.78 2.82 Ϯ 0.98 Apparent weight at stalling rpm¶ Maximum rotation, rpm Ͼ11,700 6,400 3,500 3,400 Stalling acceleration (ϫg) Ͼ11,465 3,431 1,025 968 Apparent weight at Stall࿣ Ͼ2.59 Ϯ 0.78 0.99 Ϯ 0.24 0.25 Ϯ 0.08 0.27 Ϯ 0.09 (ϫ 103 pN) The apparent weight was calculated by multiplying the amoeba’s reduced mass and the stalling acceleration. The stalling acceleration was calculated from the rpm beyond which the amoebae were unable to crawl centripetally and the distance (7.5 cm) between the center of the rotor to the center of the observation chamber. *NC4: wild type (12), Ax3: axenic strain (13, 14), HS1: myosin II knockout (mhcAϪ) (15), A5; triple knockout (mhcAϪ͞myoIAϪ͞myoIBϪ). †Calculated from measurements of radii of 200 cells each; each cell was assumed to be a 5-␮m-high disk. ‡Apparent cell density (␦) was determined as isopycnic density (17). §⌬Mass; reduced mass ϭ (cell density Ϫ medium density) ϫ cell volume. Medium density of the standard buffer 3 (␳o) was 1.005 gram͞cm as measured with an Ostwald’s pycnometer (21). ࿣(⌬Mass) ϫ (stalling acceleration); standard deviation, each based on measurements of radii of 200 cells. Calibration of Apparent Weight of Amoeba. The forces on the equipped with an oil-immersion ϫ63 plan apo objective (numerical amoebae were calibrated by Newton’s equation of motion as aperture 1.4). The image was acquired with a cooled CCD (PXL; below: Photometrics, Tucson, AZ) equipped with a Kodak KAF 1400 chip. The fluorescence and phase-contrast images were acquired at an ϭ ⌬ ϫ ϫ 7͑ ͒ Force (F) m a 10 pN . 8-bit depth of gray scale by using an integrated image acquisition and processing system (MetaMorph; Universal Imaging Corpora- Where ⌬m (reduced mass) ϭ [cell density (␦) Ϫ medium density tion, West Chester, PA). The spatial resolution of the system is (␳)] ϫ cell volume (gram͞cm3). calculated to be better than 250 nm (19, 20). ϭ ␲ ϫ ͞ 2 ϫ ͞ 2 Acceleration (a) {(2 R 60) r} (cm sec ). Results Where R ϭ rpm and r ϭ distance between the center of Behavior of Cells Under High Centrifugal Fields. In the centrifuge the centrifuge rotor and center of the specimen chamber (in polarizing microscope, the glass windows of the specimen cham- centimeters).