International Institute for Tel: +43 2236 807 342 Applied Systems Analysis Fax: +43 2236 71313 Schlossplatz 1 E-mail: [email protected] A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria Web: www.iiasa.ac.at Interim Report IR-04-019 The Environmental Impacts of the Gulf War 1991 Olof Lindén ([email protected]) Arne Jernelöv ([email protected]) Johanna Egerup ([email protected]) Approved by Sten Nilsson Deputy Director and Leader, Forestry Project April 2004 Interim Reports on work of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis receive only limited review. Views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Institute, its National Member Organizations, or other organizations supporting the work. IR-04-019/April The Environmental Impacts of the Gulf War 1991 Olof Lindén Arne Jernelöv Johanna Egerup ii Cover Photo: Over 900 oil wells in Kuwait were damaged by the retreating Iraqi forces in February-March 1991. About 600 of these wells caught fire. Photos by Olof Lindén iii Contents Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1. The Links Between Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts...................................... 2 1.1 Can the Environmental Benefit from War?............................................................ 3 1.2 “The Law of War” .................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Compensation for Environmental Damage: The Case of Kuwait versus Iraq ....... 5 1.4 Assessing Environmental Impacts of War ............................................................. 6 2. Environment in Arabian Peninsula and Gulf................................................................ 7 2.1 Climate ................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 The Terrestrial Environment .................................................................................. 8 2.3 The Marine Environment ....................................................................................... 9 2.4 Human Settlements............................................................................................... 11 3. Background to the War............................................................................................... 12 3.1 Oil – a Source of Conflict..................................................................................... 13 3.2 The Iran-Iraq War................................................................................................. 14 3.3 The Iran-Iraq War Aftermath ............................................................................... 15 4. Invasion, Occupation and War ................................................................................... 16 4.1 Iraq's Invasion....................................................................................................... 16 4.2 Occupation............................................................................................................ 19 4.3 War ....................................................................................................................... 20 4.3.1 Destruction of Oil Wells................................................................................ 21 4.3.2 Oil spills in the Gulf ...................................................................................... 21 4.3.3 Early Scenarios.............................................................................................. 22 4.4 Pollution to the Air ............................................................................................... 24 4.4.1 Smoke Plume................................................................................................. 25 4.4.2 Gases to the Air ............................................................................................. 26 4.4.3 Soot and Particles .......................................................................................... 27 iv 4.4.4 Air Pollution from Military Operations......................................................... 29 4.4.5 The Rain of Oil.............................................................................................. 30 4.5 Impacts on the Terrestrial Environment ............................................................... 30 4.5.1 The Distribution and Fate of the Oil.............................................................. 30 4.5.2 Fighting the Fires........................................................................................... 35 4.5.3 The Oil Lakes ................................................................................................ 36 4.5.4 Emissions from the Oil Fires......................................................................... 38 4.5.5 The Desert Crust............................................................................................ 39 4.5.6 Oil Trenches .................................................................................................. 40 4.5.7 Vegetation...................................................................................................... 40 4.5.8 Wildlife.......................................................................................................... 41 4.5.9 Agriculture..................................................................................................... 42 4.5.10 Groundwater ................................................................................................ 43 4.5.11 Mines and Munitions................................................................................... 44 4.5.12 Destroyed Vehicles, Equipment and Wastes............................................... 44 4.5.13 Persistent pollutants..................................................................................... 45 4.6 Impacts in the Marine Environment ..................................................................... 47 4.6.1 Effects of Petroleum in the Marine Environment.......................................... 48 4.6.2 The Degradation of the Oil........................................................................... 50 4.6.3 Where did the Oil End Up? ........................................................................... 52 4.6.4 Beaches.......................................................................................................... 53 4.6.5 Mangroves ..................................................................................................... 54 4.6.6.Salt Marshes .................................................................................................. 55 4.6.7 Sediment and Seawater Quality..................................................................... 56 4.6.8 Coral Reefs .................................................................................................... 56 4.6.9 Impact of Oil Fires on the Marine Environment ........................................... 57 4.6.10 Sea Birds and Waders.................................................................................. 58 4.6.11 Fish and Shrimp Stocks............................................................................... 59 4.6.12 The Marine Turtle Population ..................................................................... 61 4.6.13 Marine Mammals......................................................................................... 62 4.7 Clean Up of the Oil Spill ...................................................................................... 62 4.8 Human Health Aspects ......................................................................................... 66 4.8.1 Military Deaths and Injuries During and After the War................................ 67 4.8.2 Gulf War Syndrome (GWS).......................................................................... 67 v 4.8.3 Kuwaiti Civilian Deaths and Injuries During and After the War.................. 68 4.8.4 Iraqi Civilian Deaths and Injuries During and After the War ....................... 71 4.8.5 Health Impact of Air Pollutants..................................................................... 73 References .................................................................................................................. 75 vi Abstract The environmental consequences of the Gulf War in 1991 affected the air, the marine environment, and the terrestrial ecosystem. Various scenarios and forecasts had been made before the war about the possible and probable impacts under different conditions. The follow-up studies have showed a rather different picture than what had been forecasted. When considering the various aspects of air and atmospheric pollution, in brief summary, the following observations have been made: Early in 1991 more than 800 oil wells were blown up, of these more than 600 caught fire and burned with flames and about 50 wells gushed oil onto the ground. During the period up to October 1991 all the wells were caped. The maximum amount of burnt oil and gas in the oil fires was about 355 000 tons and 35 million m3 respectively per day. The sot emissions for the burning oil and gas has been estimated to about 20 000 tons per day and the total SO2 emission about 24 000 tons per day. The CO2 emission from the burning oil and gas in Kuwait has been estimated to about 130 to 140 million tons corresponding to 2-3% of the global annual anthropogenic contribution from the use of fossil and recent fuels and only 0.1% of the total global