Free World, Cheap Buildings: U.S. Hegemony and the Origins of Modern Architecture in South Korea, 1953-1960 By Dongmin Park A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture in the Graduate Division Of the University Of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Andrew Shanken, Chair Professor Greg Castillo Professor Margaret Crawford Professor Michael Southworth Spring 2016 Abstract Free World, Cheap Buildings: U.S. Hegemony and the Origins of Modern Architecture in South Korea, 1953-1960 by Dongmin Park Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture University of California, Berkeley Professor Andrew Shanken, Chair This dissertation examines the role of U.S.-aided construction projects as an instrument of power and legitimacy in the rebuilding of South Korea after the Korean War through the Eisenhower years, by situating them in the socio-political context of the Cold War. It specifically addresses two intertwined historical questions: (1) How did the United States, portraying its image as an anti-imperialist nation, quickly establish a powerful hegemony in South Korea? (2) What influence did those construction projects have on the development of modern architecture in South Korea? This study argues that, in a war-ravaged Korea, construction projects were America’s core hegemonic projects in the making of a democratic, capitalist society. Through numerous construction projects in South Korea, the U.S nurtured democratic citizenship, established a private enterprise system, spread Christianity, instilled democratic governance, and offered the “American way of life” to Koreans. In addition, they provided a unique opportunity for the U.S. to fashion, with humanitarianism, America’s image and presence in Korea. Both in Korea and globally, images of the U.S. sponsorship of South Korean rehabilitation and peaceful co-existence between the Koreans and Americans became a powerful propaganda tool that promoted an image of American’s benevolence and leadership. Grandiose and high-style architecture is not the focus of this dissertation; instead, the majority of buildings this study examines are simple and utilitarian structures. After the war, a great number of buildings had to be built in a short period of time using a limited amount of construction materials. A lack of building technicians also necessitated simple construction. Simple buildings provided an easier model for Korean architects and builders to learn American building technologies and the tenets of modern architecture. This dissertation examines the socio-political context of these construction projects, their ideological uses, the self-help approach employed by the United States, and the compromises made to accommodate Korean local conditions and customs. I analyze the diplomatic and governmental sources as well as construction documents. I also investigate the reception of the architectural projects from Korean journals, magazines, and newspapers. Using a variety of different sources from both the U.S. and Korea, this dissertation specifically focuses on the tensions and paradoxes between the promises and the reality of these 1 construction projects as they took form in the process. In addition, by examining North Korean newspaper articles and other publications as well as archival sources from the former communist world, it compares South Korean reconstruction projects with North Korean counterparts. Unlike the visual spectacle of North Korea’s monumental buildings, large squares, and wide boulevards, U.S.-assisted construction projects in South Korea were mostly small, utilitarian structure and mainly targeted the everyday life of the Korean populace (Chapter 1). For U.S. officials, the question of how to conceptualize their assistance was an important concern. Specifically, the United States called for international collaboration, rather than using the nameplate of the U.S. government (Chapter 2); construction projects were actively used as a propaganda tool (Chapter 3); and U.S. officials urged private sector entrepreneurs to participate in South Korea’s rebuilding (Chapter 4). Most importantly, the reconstruction had to be done by the Koreans. America’s primary role was to provide knowledge and materials with which Koreans could build their own cities and towns. Koreans actively participated in U.S.-sponsored construction projects, and through educational exchange programs, the U.S. government trained pro-American Korean elites in American universities and institutions (Chapter 5). By examining architecture as a lens through which to address the social, political, and cultural dimensions of the U.S. influence on South Korea in its reconstruction period, this study fills the lacuna of the unexamined relationship, one that linked the political contexts of the Cold War in East Asia, the foreign policies of the United States, post-war nation-building in North and South Korea, and the development of modern architecture in South Korea. 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... iv Introduction ............................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1. Monuments and Huts: The Post-Korean War Reconstruction of North and South Korea ........................................................................................ 1 Chapter 2. United Power: The United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency ...................... 23 Chapter 3. Building Goodwill: Armed Forces Assistance to Korea ......................................... 48 Chapter 4. Free World, Expensive Homes: The Homes for Korea Project .............................. 77 Chapter 5. Intellectual Baptism: Educational Exchange Programs and the Rise of Pro-U.S. Architectural Elites in South Korea ....................................... 102 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 132 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 137 i Acknowledgements I had always considered the acknowledgements page to be the least important part of a dissertation. I was wrong. Writing this dissertation was not a solitary venture. It was truly a result of collaborative effort with my advisors, professors, colleagues, friends, and family. I could not have completed this dissertation without their intellectual and emotional support. In fact, this short acknowledgements section is a long list of the co-authors whose names would otherwise be anonymous. I own my deepest gratitude to my academic advisor, Andrew Shanken, whose intellectual guidance and encouragement have been indispensable every step of the way, from the first day of my research until this moment. Professor Shanken sets an inspirational example as a scholar, teacher, and mentor whom I would like to emulate. I am also deeply indebted to other committee members who generously provided their insights, advice, and knowledge. Greg Castillo encouraged me to include the North Korean side of the story and directed me to frame my dissertation as an ideological conflict between the “free world” and the communist world. Margaret Crawford significantly contributed to the completion of this dissertation not only via her insightful comments—her warm encouragement and helpful support gave me the confidence to move forward. I also owe gratitude to Michael Southworth for not only providing me his expertise with urban design, but also for telling me his personal stories at the University of Minnesota, which became an important basis for chapter five. In addition, I thank numerous conference discussants, commentators, and other Berkeley professors who provided critical and constructive comments at various stage of this dissertation, including Gregg Brazinsky, Matthew Lasner, Max Hirsh, Nelson Graburn, Nezar AlSayyad, Paul Groth, and Sohyun Park. This dissertation would not have been possible without the generous financial assistance from several organizations. My archival research was sponsored by multiple travel and research grants, including the Eisenhower Foundation Travel Grants, the Moody Research Grant awarded by the Lyndon B. Johnson Foundation, the Elmer L. Andersen Research Scholars Program at the University of Minnesota, and UC Berkeley Graduate Division Summer Grant. I would also like to thank the librarians and archivists who helped me find archival materials at various sites, including the National Archives in College Park, Maryland, the United Nations Archives in New York, the George C. Marshall Research Library in Lexington, Virginia, the Archives of Appalachia in Johnson City, Tennessee, and the American Institute of Architects Archives in Washington, D.C. I owe a profound debt of gratitude to faculty members and staffers at the UC Berkeley Center for Korean Studies: John Lie, Laura Nelson, Stephanie Kim, and Dylan Davis. Their generous assistance regarding my conference travel, summer research, and workshop opportunities contributed greatly to the completion of the dissertation. The Kyujanggak Junior Fellowship from Seoul National University allowed me to spend six months in South