AN ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF TAHLTAN SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Sylvia Louise Albright B.A. (Hons.), University of British Columbia, 1977 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Archaeology Sylvia Louise Albright SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY December 1982 All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Sylvia Louise Albright Degree: Master of Arts Title of Thesis: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Tahltan Subsistence and Settlement Patterns Examining Committee : Chairperson: Richard Shutler, Jr. Brian Hayden Senior Supervisor Mark Skinner Michael Kew Externa 1 Examiner Professor Department of Anthopology & Sociology University of British Columbia --PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I hereby grant to Simon Fraser University the right to lend my thesis, project or extended essay (the title of which is shown below) to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a reqbest from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. I further agree that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by me or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or pub lication of this work for financial gain sha II not be allowed w i thout my written permission. Title of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Tahltan Author: v - .. E 1signature) Sylvia A. Albright (name 1 (date) An Ethnoarchaeo~ogicalStudy of Tahl tan Subsistence and Settlement Patterns " ABSTRACT This thesis concerns the dynamics of prehistoric hunter-gatherer sub- sistence behavior and site formation processes, Using an ethnoarchaeological approach, research was conducted on traditional subsistence practices of the Tahl tan Indians, an Athapaskan group, occupying the Stikine Plateau area of northwest British Columbia. Re1 ationships between physical environment, characteristics of flora and fauna of the area, and technology used to ex- ploit different resources are examined. Factors affecting the location, size, and types of sites occupied in- cl ude: 1) local resource avai I abil ity; 2) procurement techniques and, 3) strategies for coping with seasonal and periodic fluctuations in re- source abundance. The Tahltan were semi-nomadic in their yearly round of subsistence activities, with a pattern of aggregation in summer at perman- ent villages along major rivers where annual runs of anadromous salmon pro- vided a re1 iable, staple food source. In early fall families dispersed to separate camps in alpine areas to snare large numbers of marmots, collect berries, and hunt sheep, goats and bear. Several families gathered at major fall and winter camps located in forested valleys, to cooperate in capturing woodlands caribou, a staple resource which provided val uabl e raw materials as well as meat. In spring families occupied smaller camps near lakes and streams to procure a variety of fresh-water fish, migratory waterfowl, vegetable foods, and beaver. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the Tahltan people and other residents of the Stikine River area; without their support this thesis would not have been possible. A special note of thanks is extended to Dora Williams and Fannie Woods who first invited me to share in their daily lives and activities and challanged me to learn more about their traditional ways. My thanks go also to Ivan QUOC~,chief of the Tahltan Band, for encouraging me to develop a program to involve the local young people in understanding their cultural traditions. John Frank is thanked for his enthusiasm and assistance in supervising these summer projects. Financial assistance for research has been provided by the B.C. Heritage Conservation Branch, grants from B. C. Youth Employment Program administered by Simon Fraser University, and the Federal Summer Student Employment Program. A research assistantship from Simon Fraser Univer- sity, made available by Erle Nelson of the Archaeology Department, provided additional financial assistance and is gratefully acknowledged. Knut Fladmark, Brian Hayden, and Mark Skinner, members of my advisory committee, are thanked for their encouragement, direction, and criticisms while conducting research and writing of this thesis. Monica Deutsch is acknowledged for her efforts in typing this thesis, as is Brenda Peacock for help with drawing of maps and figures. My grateful appreciation is extended to the many friends and relatives who provided moral support and encouragement in bringing this thesis to the final completion. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i Approval Page i i Abstract i i i Acknowledgements i v Table of Contents v List of Tables viii List of Figures i x CHAPTERS 1. BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH Introduction Theoretical Framework Methodology 2. THE TAHLTAN PEOPLE Introduction Traditional Territories Social Organization Subsistence Economjl and Trade 3. HISTORICAL EVENTS IN THE STIKINE RIVER AREA Introduction Discovery and the Fur Trade Era The Gold Rush Period Missionary Influences Recent Developments - Opening of the North 4. THE ENVIRONMENT Introduction Physiographic Areas Climate Biogeoclimatic Zones Paleocl imate TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) 5. THE RESOURCE BASE Mammal Resources Avian Resources Amphibians Reptiles, Insects Fi sh Resources Plant Resources 6. TECHNOLOGY OF RESOURCE EXPLOITATION Hunting Techniques Hunting Implements Skinning and Butchering Game Use of Animals for Raw Materials Hide Processing Fishing Techniques Processing of Salmon Use of Edible Plants Technological Uses of Plant Resources Woodworking Tools Shelters and Other Structures Methods of Cooking and Preparing Foods Storage Facilities 7. A SEASONAL MODEL OF TAHLTAN SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Introduction Subsistence Requirements Resource Attributes Seasonality and Resource Availability Technological Efficiency The Seasonal Round of Subsistence Activities ECONOMIC STABILITY Flucuations in Resource Abundance Strategies for Maintaining Economic Stability 9. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF SEASONAL SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES 203 Site Format ion Processes 203 Factors Affecting Visibility of Archaeological Remains 21 1 Conclusions 218 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) APPENDIX 1. Bird Species Occuring in the Stikine Plateau Area 219 APPENDIX 2. Plants Used in Technology 224 APPENDIX 3. Edible Plants of the Stikine River Area 227 APPENDIX 4. Maps of Ethnographic Fishing Vi 1 lages 234 BIBLIOGRAPHY 238 LIST OF TABLES Alternate Names Used in Reference to Tahltan Clans or Fami 1 ies Hours of Direct Sunlight Fish Species Occurring in the Study Area Average Catches of Sti kine Salmon by Alaska Gi 1 lnet Fisheries Estimates of Exploitation and Abundance of Stikine River Sockeye, 1959 to 1980 Uses and Relative Value of Raw Materials Provided by Animal Resources Measurements of Several Stone Hide Working Tools Tahltan Fish Camp/Smokehouse Survey Average Daily Requ ipements of Proteins, Vitamins, and Mi nera 1 s Calculations of Average Caloric Values for Individual Resources Tahltan Divisions of the Year Salmon Fishing Villages in Tahltan Territories Behavioral Chain Model for Salmon Archaeological Correlates of Seasonal Subsistence Strategies LIST OF FIGURES 1. Location of Tahltan Territories 2. Clan territories and Tahltan Tribal boundaries 3. Historic settlements and routes in the Stikine area 1900 4. Physiographic areas in northwestern British Columbia 5. Comparisons of temperatures and precipitation at Telegraph Creek and Cold Fish Lake 6. Location of barriers impassable to salmon within the Stikine watershed 7. Snare with tossing pole used for rabbits 8. Bone swivel and rattle used at the end of the beaver net Deadfall trap used for carnivores Tahltan bow with antler point Attachment of points to arrow shafts Blunt headed arrow for birds and small game Bone skinning knife Split beaver hanging to dry over the campfire Awl used in sewing Bone scrapers for defleshing and scraping hides Beamer for removing hair from large hides Scraping frozen hides Wringing the hide Hafted stone tools used for dressing hides Dressing the stretched hide Hide smoking frame and pit Flaking the hide dressing stone i x --- OF FIGURES (Continued) Two types of hide dressing stones Cylindrical basket trap used for salmon Gaffing salmon in shallow waters Gaff pole with detachable hook Dip net used in fishing Three pronged spear used for ice fishing Splitting salmon on the A-frame cutting board Scored salmon hanging to dry Bundling dried salmon for storage Reconstruction of knife with obsidian flakes Stone axe used for chopping trees Curved knife with beaver incisor Straight bladed knife Traditional style smokehouse at Tahltan-Stikine confluence New smokehouse at a contemporary fishing camp Gravehouse at Telegraph Creek Dog houses built into a slope Roasting meat over the campfire Flat mortar stone used for breaking marrow bones and pounding dried fish and meat Carved spoon of sheep horn Cache pit used for storing dried foods Chart indicating seasonal abundance~availabilityof resources Salmon fishing villages in Tahltan Territories LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) 47. Salmon fishing villages on the Stikine River system 180 48. Schematic representation of location and types of sites 184 occupied during the seasonal round 49. Approximate location of several winter villages