Together Through Life An Ethnographic Study of Hierarchy, Equality, and Togetherness on the Epoon Atoll, Marshall Islands Ola Gunhildrud Berta Master’s thesis, the Department of Social Anthropology UNIVERSITY OF OSLO 2015 ii Together Through Life An Ethnographic Study of Hierarchy, Equality, and Togetherness on the Epoon Atoll, Marshall Islands Ola Gunhildrud Berta University of Oslo 2015 iii © Ola Gunhildrud Berta 2015 Together Through Life: An Ethnographic Study of Hierarchy, Equality, and Togetherness on the Epoon Atoll, Marshall Islands http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo iv Abstract This thesis deals with everyday manifestations of hierarchy, equality and togetherness on the Epoon [Ebon] Atoll on the Marshall Islands. More particularly, it investigates some of the ways in which people on Epoon evoke and invoke hierarchy and egalitarianism, depending on context. People on Epoon have a striking tendency to stress equality and togetherness among themselves, in public speeches as well as in their cooking hut conversations. This emphasis on egalitarian values is visible in most social dynamics on the atoll. Interestingly, these egalitarian ideals often stand in direct opposition to a hierarchical form of social structure. Anthropologists have typically described the Marshallese social structure as a class-based hierarchy, ranging from commoners to high chiefs, with hierarchical differences within each class. Having some forms of hierarchical organization, however, does not necessarily mean inequality regarding social life on Epoon. On the contrary, I argue that, even with the presence of hierarchy, equality stands out as an encompassing cultural value. Through four ethnographic chapters, I seek to illustrate some of the ways in which this plays out in daily life. By taking an in-depth look at family life and inheritance; leadership and changing authorities; Christian politics and denominational conflicts; and the relationship between cooperation and togetherness, I illustrate that ideas of hierarchy and egalitarianism can, and often do, coexist. As my argument goes, hierarchy does not necessitate inequality any more than egalitarianism necessitate equality. By conceptualizing equality as “of equal value,” I aim to show that ideas of both hierarchy and egalitarianism works to constitute equality as an encompassing value on the Epoon Atoll. Keywords: Hierarchy, Kinship, Christianity, Cooperation, Equality, Epoon [Ebon] Atoll v vi Acknowledgements/Naan in koṃṃoolol First, and most importantly, I am immensely grateful to Thorgeir Kolshus, without whom, this project would have looked completely different. An excellent supervisor and mentor, he has supported, challenged, motivated, inspired, and pushed me throughout this process—starting even before I began my master’s research. Second, I want to thank the Department of Social Anthropology (SAI) at the University of Oslo for support and for financial aid. Thanks also to the SAI staff for creating an intellectually stimulating environment for your students. Further, I would like to thank Thomas Hylland Eriksen for countless inspiring and enlightening conversations during my studies, and for being a great academic role model. For all their help and inspiration before and during this work, I want to thank Mac Marshall, Larry Carucci, Julianne Walsh, Frederick Steier, Mikkel Vindegg, Eirik Bischoff Riis Anfinsen, Tom Bratrud, Lena Groß, Unni Wikan, Henrik Sinding-Larsen, Marianne Lien, Rune Flikke, Pernille Ihme, Mari Deraas, Ida Erstad, Heidi Fjeld, Halvard Vike, and, of course, all my co-students. Very special thanks to Audun Bie for your guidance and stimulating conversations, and for tirelessly reading, commenting on, and correcting everything I write—you’re on point, B! To my wife and life partner, Anne-Erita Gunhildrud Berta, your comments, motivation, and support means the word to me. A most sincere thank you also to my invaluable parents Wenche and Erik Gunhildrud for your lifelong support, and particularly for saving my fieldwork when all hope was out. To my friends on Mājro: Nick Endicott and Bethany Kennedy, Benjamin “Uncle Benner” Perez, Tukkie, Yukiko “Yuki” Imai, Michael Terlep, Matt Riding, Peter Hopkins, Alfred Capelle. Giff Johnson, Terry Hazzard, and Wilbert Alik—thank you! Āliktata, ikōnnan koṃṃoolol aolep RiEpoon kōn iienin ippān doon. Kwar letok mōñā, jikin jokwe im mour ippami. Kōn men kein eḷap aō koṃṃoolol koṃ. Kōn pād eo aō ion Epoon iban meļọkļọk. Ñan aolep baaṃle eo aō: ñan baaṃle eo an Almenson im Bau, ñan baaṃle eo an Leam im Jorita Washar, im, āliktata, ñan baaṃle eo an Ione im Peter DeBrum. Eḷap aō koṃṃoolol koṃ! Im Go-Jack, rūkaki aō: Iaar kkatak eọ ñōd ko ijjañin kar eọ ñōd, koṃṃooltata! Tsingtao, Kinja, Aju, Gene, Ring (my brother), Raymond, Emma, Ivy, Charity, Kojen, Enta Peter, Nani im Jerilong, Jora im Neimej, Nora, Wilber im Emry, Malal, Riem, Ban, Term, Winta, Arbi, Judy, Judy im Jamilik, im Laikidrik, koṃṃoolol koṃ aolep! Koṃ aolep RiEpoon eṃṃool im iọ kwe ñan indeeo! vii viii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements/Naan in koṃṃoolol ............................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction, Motivations, and Method ............................................................................... 1 Aim of the thesis: What to expect ............................................................................................................... 6 Why and where: The spirit of adventure and serendipitous events ....................................................... 9 How and what: Methods, shortcomings, and a fresh start .................................................................... 11 Some notes on language ............................................................................................................................. 16 Chapter 2: Kinship, Land Distribution, and Land Inheritance ....................................................... 17 Navigating the waters of lineage, clan, descent, and kinship systems .................................................. 18 Land distribution and settlement patterns ............................................................................................... 25 Models of inheritance .................................................................................................................................. 29 Complicating the models ............................................................................................................................ 32 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 34 Chapter 3: Leadership, Power, and Changing Authorities ................................................................ 35 Notes on traditional hierarchy ................................................................................................................... 35 Chiefs today .................................................................................................................................................. 38 The case of José Ivan .................................................................................................................................. 44 Entrepreneurs and elites ............................................................................................................................. 47 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 51 Chapter 4: Christian Politics and Denominational Conflicts ........................................................... 53 The anthropology of Christianity .............................................................................................................. 56 What is an Epoon Christian? ..................................................................................................................... 58 Who is a Christian? ...................................................................................................................................... 63 Denominational conflicts ........................................................................................................................... 67 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 69 Chapter 5: Cooperation as a Means of Togetherness (and Vice Versa) ........................................ 71 Ṃande: Monday morning clean up ............................................................................................................. 73 ix Doulul: A day in the life of a copra worker ............................................................................................... 77 Declining cooperation in church activities ............................................................................................... 82 Final discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 88