Emotion and morality: Understanding the role of empathy and other specific emotions in moral judgment and moral behaviour A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Cognitive Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2016 Nalini Elisa Ramlakhan Abstract: Empathy is often considered to be an important emotion for morality. In fact, many researchers argue that morality is impossible without empathy (Howe, 2013). In this research project, I argue against the widely held view that empathy is important for morality. I examine autistic individuals and psychopaths, both known for having an impairment in empathy, in order to show that empathy is not important for morality. I argue that although autistic individuals are deficient in empathy, they display moral behaviour, thus empathy cannot be the core of morality. I argue that while psychopaths are said to lack empathy, they are not wholly devoid of empathy. If it is the case that psychopaths do not fully lack empathy, then there must be more to morality than empathy. I also show that empathy can cause partiality, and thus cannot be the core of morality. In support of a sentimentalist framework of morality, I determine the emotions important for morality by conducting a systematic review of the studies on emotion and morality. I examine and analyze studies conducted on both negative and positive emotions. I conclude that disgust, anger, distress sympathy, elevation, and mirth are important emotions for morality. 1 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Andrew Brook for working on this project with me over the last few years. I cannot thank you enough for your guidance, insights, and commitment to this project. I have learned so much from you over the past few years, and I am so grateful to have had you as my thesis supervisor. Thank you for always pushing me a little further and believing in my full potential. I would like to thank Dr. David Matheson and Dr. John Logan for being on my committee. Your insights have been very helpful and very much appreciated. I would like to thank Dr. Dan McArthur and Dr. Peter Watson for being a part of my thesis examination. I appreciate the feedback on my project. I would like to thank the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council for partially funding my research project. Finally, I would like to thank my parents who have been supportive throughout the duration of my thesis project. Your love and support has taken me a long way. Thank you for always believing that I can achieve anything and everything that I want to as long as I work hard for it. 2 Contents 1: Determining whether empathy is necessary for morality ................................................................... 6 1.1 Introduction and preliminary definitions ....................................................................................... 7 1.1.1 Morality ...................................................................................................................................... 12 1.1.2 Thesis project ............................................................................................................................. 13 1.2 Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 15 1.3 Definitions and relationships.......................................................................................................... 18 1.3.1 Cognitive empathy...................................................................................................................... 19 1.3.2 Affective empathy ....................................................................................................................... 20 1.3.3 Sympathy .................................................................................................................................... 22 1.3.4 Personal distress ........................................................................................................................ 24 1.3.5 Distress for others ...................................................................................................................... 24 1.4 Hypothesis ........................................................................................................................................ 26 1.5 Empathy-based theories of morality ................................................................................................. 28 1.5.1 Howe’s theory of morality .......................................................................................................... 28 1.5.2 Marsh’s theory of morality ........................................................................................................ 31 1.5.3 Baron-Cohen’s theory of morality ............................................................................................. 34 1.5.4 Daniel Batson’s theory of morality ............................................................................................ 39 1.6 Emotion and morality: Theories of how moral judgments are made and which emotions guide morality ...................................................................................................................................................... 41 1.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 41 1.6.2 Jonathan Haidt’s theory of morality .......................................................................................... 42 1.6.3 Nichols’ theory of moral judgment ............................................................................................ 49 1.6.4 Positive emotions and moral judgment ...................................................................................... 54 1.6.5 Moral judgment and moral dilemmas ........................................................................................ 55 1.6.6 Examples from autism ................................................................................................................ 57 1.6.7 Examples of morality that are not driven by empathy ............................................................... 66 1.6.8 A brief discussion of psychopathy .............................................................................................. 68 3 1.6.9 Is empathy causally sufficient for moral behaviour? Examining what is missing from psychopaths ................................................................................................................................................................ 81 1.6.10 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 97 1.7 Prinz’s alternative ............................................................................................................................... 97 1.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 97 1.7.2 Prinz on morality ....................................................................................................................... 99 1.7.3 Empathy and partiality............................................................................................................. 108 1.7.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 111 2 Determining which emotions are important for morality ................................................................ 113 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 114 2.2 Alternatives to an empathy-based morality .................................................................................... 119 2.2.1 Haidt’s theory of morality ............................................................................................................ 119 2.2.2 Nichols’ theory of morality .......................................................................................................... 120 2.2.3 McGeer’s theory of morality ........................................................................................................ 121 2.2.4 Prinz’s theory of morality ............................................................................................................ 121 2.3 Negative emotions ............................................................................................................................. 122 2.3.1 An analysis of: Bjorklund, F. (2004).. ..................................................................................... 122 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 122 Details of the study ............................................................................................................................ 124 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 129 2.3.2 An Analysis of: Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D.A., Knobe, J., & Bloom, P. (2009).. ............................. 131 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................