Agric Hum Values DOI 10.1007/s10460-017-9822-8 Extending ethical consumerism theory to semi-legal sectors: insights from recreational cannabis Elizabeth A. Bennett1 Accepted: 12 August 2017 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2017 Abstract Ethical consumerism theory aims to describe, insights suggest that prohibition (and its lingering effects) explain, and evaluate the ways in which producers and con- can inhibit the emergence of ethical consumerism. sumers use the market to support social and environmental values. The literature draws insights from empirical studies Keywords Political consumerism · Sustainability · of sectors that largely take place on the legal market, such Marijuana · Cannabis · Fair trade · Illegal as textiles and agri-food. This paper takes a first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi-legal sectors where Abbreviations market activities occur legally and illegally. How does extant EPA Environmental Protection Agency theory extend to sectors such as sex work, cigarettes, and NGO Non-Governmental Organization recreational drugs? This study draws on the case of recrea- OLCC Oregon Liquor Control Commission tional cannabis (marijuana) in Portland, OR (USA). Data RA Research Assistant from 33 interviews, structured fieldwork at 64 dispensaries, SMO Social Movement Organization and the US Census Bureau American Community Survey USD United States Dollars are analyzed using qualitative, quantitative, and spatial USDA United States Department of Agriculture methods. The findings are compared to 12 suggestions that WHO World Health Organization emerge from the literature on fair trade, organics, alterna- tive agriculture, and political consumerism. I argue that not all ethical consumerism theory extends to semi-legal sec- Introduction tors. Cannabis closely resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply/demand, prioritization of ethical issues, A substantial interdisciplinary literature on ethical consum- and pervasiveness of false claims, but differs in terms of erism has emerged over the past two decades, drawing on who organizes, which types of strategies are pursued, and scholarship from several fields of study including fair trade how ethical products are framed. The differences stem from (Raynolds and Bennett 2015a), alternative food movements several pervasive stigmas about cannabis. I also argue that (Goodman et al. 2012), voluntary certification (Bartley et al. the stigmas that set cannabis apart from other (more legal 2015), and consumer politics (Micheletti and Stolle 2012). sectors) and present challenges to ethical consumerism in One of the principal objectives of this literature is to describe cannabis are directly related to the War on Drugs. These and explain the contours of supply and demand for ethi- cal products in various sectors. Commonly studied sectors include agri-food, textiles/fashion, handicrafts, meat/fishing/ aquaculture, and forest-based products (e.g., Guthman and * Elizabeth A. Bennett Brown 2016; Miller and Williams 2009; Littrell and Dickson [email protected] 2010; Micheletti and Stolle 2012; Cheyns 2014), and, more recently, mining/extraction, electronics, investment, tourism, 1 Department of International Affairs, Lewis & Clark College, 0615 SW Palatine Hill Rd, MSC 36, Portland, OR 97219, and others (Hilson and Kamlongera 2012; Distelhorst et al. USA 2015; Delmas and Blass 2010; Boluk 2011). The resulting Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 E. A. Bennett theories are thus based on products largely produced and related to cannabis production. Third, I outline the meth- exchanged within the legal market. This paper aims to take ods of data collection and analysis: qualitative analysis of the first step toward theorizing ethical consumerism in semi- 38 interviews and event observations; quantitative analysis legal sectors.1 Where are the boundaries of extant theory, of 64 structured dispensary visits; and spatial and statisti- and what modifications (if any) might be required for sectors cal analysis of dispensary and demographic data. Fourth, I such as sex work, cigarettes, and recreational drugs? present the empirical findings, putting them in conversation This study draws on a multi-method exploratory case with suggestions offered by extant literature. Finally, I sug- study of recreational cannabis2 in Portland, Oregon, in the gest how and why ethical consumerism may differ between Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Cannabis legal and semi-legal sectors, and argue that the stigmas and is an increasingly important product in the international habits generated by prohibition and the War on Drugs can political economy. Several countries have recently legal- inhibit ethical consumerism, even after legalization. The ized (e.g., Uruguay, in 2013), stated intentions to legalize article closes with a discussion of the implications for other (e.g., Canada, for 2017), partially legalized (e.g., the United semi-legal sectors, including a brief discussion of tobacco States, beginning in 2012), or moved toward legalization and sex work, and suggestions for future research. of cannabis by decriminalizing aspects of cultivation, pos- session, and consumption. Thus, the contributions of this project are twofold. First, in the vein of Carolan (2016), Literature: ethical consumerism in legal who studied marijuana growers to learn about innovations in and semi-legal markets food production, it uses evidence from this sector to engage and provoke understanding of ethical consumerism, more “Ethical consumerism” refers to production, exchange, and broadly.3 The empirical evidence presented in this study consumption activities that aim to support social values suggests that some insights may be more applicable outside such as sustainability, social justice, corporate responsibil- the legal sector than others. While cannabis very closely ity, workers’ rights, and environmentalism. This concept resembles theoretical expectations in terms of supply and expands Willis and Schor’s (2012) “conscious consumer- demand, prioritization of ethical issues, and pervasiveness ism” to include supply-side initiatives, such as ethical pro- of false claims, it differs in terms of who organizes, which duction and retail operations. Producers, retailers, and con- types of strategies are pursued, and how ethical products sumers engage in ethical consumerism activities to avoid are framed (in comparison to conventional products). The participating in objectionable market practices (such as second contribution is to draw on theories of ethical con- labor exploitation) (see Lewis and Potter 2011). Addition- sumerism to offer fresh insights about cannabis and, more ally, they may seek to change objectionable institutions and broadly, the War on Drugs. Evidence suggests that a variety practices through their efforts, a concept Micheletti (2003, of pervasive stigmas challenge best practices on the supply p. 2) calls “political consumerism”. Political consumerism side and inhibit pursuit of ethical products on the demand seeks change by addressing market forces, as opposed to side. Because these stigmas appear to be related to canna- public policy (Roff 2007). On the supply-side, ethical con- bis’s semi-legal status, this study suggests that prohibition sumerism initiatives include labeling schemes, stewardship (and its lingering effects) can inhibit the emergence of ethi- certification, and socially responsible investing, among cal consumerism. others (Micheletti 2003). Demand-side ethical initiatives The article is organized as follows: First, I clarify terms include boycotts, buycotts, reduced consumption, brand- and review ethical consumerism literature related to four loyalty, looking for labels, and direct purchasing. This article themes: organizations and leaders, supply and availability, refers to goods exchanged through these initiatives as “ethi- framing and information, and demand. Second, I provide cal products.” As Brown (2013) suggests, consumers and background on the case study by describing Portland as a producers engage in ethical consumerism to pursue moral field site, reviewing the legal status of recreational cannabis purity, project altruism, and bolster/illustrate cultural capi- in Oregon, and highlighting labor and environmental issues tal. These positive social rewards are in stark contrast with the negative connotations often associated with semi-legal sectors. 1 “Semi-legal” highlights fluidity between legal and illegal activities “Semi-legal” refers to sectors in which consumption, pro- and is explained in the following section. duction, and transaction activities all occur both legally and 2 This paper uses “cannabis” and “marijuana” interchangeably, illegally, with many actors moving between legal and illegal favoring “cannabis” because it is the plant’s genus and because the markets or operating in both at the same time. Semi-legal US government propagated the term “marijuana” in conjunction with racist rhetoric in the 1930s (Hudak 2016). goods are not fully prohibited. Their supply, demand, and both 3 Ethical consumerism is not a panacea for social and environmental exchange mechanisms take place legally and under- issues in cannabis or any sector (see Gunderson 2013). ground. This distinguishes them from fully illegal sectors, 1 3 Extending ethical consumerism theory to semi-legal sectors: insights from recreational… such as cocaine, stolen art, endangered species, counter- Stryker and Pennington 2014; Gall 2016). Other studies feit handbags, human trafficking,