Government in The Republic of Cyprus: Responding to the Problems of Water Scarcity and Quality Alexis Pericli December 2018 Submitted to the University of Hertfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 ABSTRACT Water management is a significant challenge in The Republic of Cyprus. The country is subject to a number of water problems based on scarcity and quality, with these stemming from limited precipitation inputs, drought, the overuse of groundwater, as well as the spatial disparity of supply and demand due to population growth, agriculture, tourism, and climate change. The convergence of these aspects has generated water problems, which necessitate the use of particular problem-solving responses by government that are targeted at securing the provision of water services and sustaining socio-economic development. To understand how government in Cyprus has responded to water management problems this thesis adopts an understanding based on John Dryzek’s (2013) problem-solving rationalities of administrative rationalism, democratic pragmatism, and economic rationalism. These reflect and build on the three methods that societies use to coordinate and organise responses to socio- environmental problems, namely mandatory, voluntary, and economic approaches. The problem-solving rationalities provide a unique way of understanding government problem- solving due to an interpretation that focuses on the specifics of problem-solving, based on; actor roles, motives, and behaviour; rhetoric; the evolution of responses over time; as well as the use of multiple concepts that are brought together to offer a more inclusive conceptualisation. This research adopts a qualitative approach to data collection and utilises semi-structured interviews to understand the views, roles, and experiences of key actors in problem-solving. A case study approach provides an appropriate context and facilitates detailed analysis of the problem-solving rationalities. The Republic of Cyprus offers a unique and appropriate case study setting. This is justified based on; tangible problems of scarcity and quality in practice; the potential to generate new insights in relation to small, Mediterranean, and peripheral EU state experiences; as well as limited previous research understanding government responses and considering actor roles and behaviour when responding to water problems. Based on the findings, Dryzek’s rationalities demonstrated a good level of applicability, with certain aspects shown to be justifiable such as the basis of administrative rationalism, the idea that some civil servants act in the public interest, and evidence of management challenges expected by Dryzek. Some differences were also found in relation to the existence or non- existence of certain methods or constructs; differences in some natural relationships; as well as variability in actor type, role, behaviour, and motivation. A range of emerging themes were identified as a result of the findings. These included; an alternative understanding of the evolutionary format of problem-solving; the role and influence of supranational governance; the importance of aspects such as culture and economic status; as well as the strong influence of politics. Ultimately, the management challenges of the rationalities, similarities and differences found in practice relating to the characteristics of the rationalities, as well as the emerging themes identified through the findings, have been utilised to develop understanding of problem- solving in Cyprus. 2 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank God for providing me with guidance and strength - Κύριε Ἰησοῦ Χριστέ, Υἱὲ τοῦ Θεοῦ, ἐλέησόν με τὸν ἁμαρτωλόν. In turn, there are many people I wish to thank for the kindness and generosity shown to me during this study, which at times seemed to be never-ending! Thanks are accorded to all those individuals who agreed to be interviewed, and without whom this thesis would not have been possible. A huge thanks to James Jenkins for commitment to my work, it has been a challenging but enjoyable experience. I will always be grateful for your help. Also, big thanks are due to Darren Crook for discussion and guidance along the way. My Mum and Dad are due particular thanks. I know how hard they have worked to allow me to seek the opportunities I have desired in life. I hope this goes some way towards repaying the debt of gratitude I feel. You have made all this possible. I love you both. To my Sister, family, and close friends - thanks for putting up with me during this journey and for being so thoughtful and caring! Last and by no means least, Andrea, thank you for your support, love, patience, and understanding. You have been amazing - I couldn’t have done it without you pidge! 3 Table of Contents Page Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 4 List of Figures 9 List of Tables 11 List of Abbreviations 12 Chapter 1: Introduction 13 1.1 Context and motivation for research 13 1.1.1 How water management problems have been explored 14 1.1.2 Rationale for a case study focused on the Republic of Cyprus 16 1.1.3 Social coordination mechanisms and Dryzek’s problem-solving 21 rationalities 1.2 Aim and objectives 27 1.3 Organisation of the thesis 28 Chapter 2: Government Responses to Water Resource Issues 33 2.1 Chapter overview 33 2.2 Managing water resources 33 2.3 Water availability 34 2.3.1 Supply management 34 2.3.2 Demand management 35 2.4 Water quality 37 2.4.1 Pollution management 38 2.5 Contextualising water management and policy responses 40 2.6 Conclusion 41 4 Chapter 3: Understanding Problem-Solving Responses 43 3.1 Chapter overview 43 3.2 Mandatory approaches 44 3.2.1 Understanding bureaucracy 45 3.2.2 The top-down perspective 46 3.2.3 The bottom-up perspective 47 3.2.4 Bargaining and bureaucratic negotiation 50 3.2.5 Power approaches 51 3.3 Voluntary approaches 53 3.3.1 Pluralism 54 3.3.2 Policy networks and communities 55 3.4 Economic approaches 58 3.4.1 Economic institutionalism 59 3.4.2 Economic models of understanding and public choice theory 62 3.5 Contrasting perspectives and challenges 65 3.6 Conceptualising environmental problem-solving approaches 67 3.6.1 Advancing conceptual understanding 67 3.6.2 Administrative rationalism 71 3.6.3 Democratic pragmatism 76 3.6.4 Economic rationalism 80 3.7 Conclusion 84 Chapter 4: Research Methodology 86 4.1 Chapter overview 86 4.2 Design 86 4.2.1 Justifying the primary data collection approach 86 4.2.2 Justifying other methodological approaches 89 4.2.3 Justifying a case study approach 91 4.2.4 The Republic of Cyprus as a case study focus 92 4.3 The interview basis and structure 95 4.3.1 Interviewee selection 96 4.3.2 Sampling 98 4.3.3 Triangulation and the importance of secondary data 99 4.4 The interview process 100 5 4.5 Data collection 103 4.5.1 Contacting the interviewees 105 4.6 Data analysis 107 4.7 Conclusion 111 Chapter 5: Water Management in Cyprus 112 5.1 Chapter overview 112 5.2 Water management problems 113 5.2.1 Water scarcity and quality 114 5.3 Water management responses 118 5.3.1 Phase one of water management [1960-1990] 118 5.3.2 Phase two of water management [1990-2004] 122 5.3.3 Phase three of water management [2004-2014] 127 5.4 Water sector responsibilities and organisational structure 134 5.4.1 Responsibilities defined by national water laws and legislation 134 5.4.2 The organisational structure of the water sector 135 5.5 Conclusion 143 Chapter 6: Administrative Rationalism in Cyprus 145 6.1 Chapter overview 145 6.2 Administrative rationalism in Cyprus 146 6.2.1 Institutions and practices 146 6.2.2 Basic entities recognised or constructed 152 6.2.3 Assumptions about natural relationships 157 6.2.4 Agents and their motives 161 6.2.5 Key metaphors and rhetorical devices 170 6.2.6 Practical challenges of administrative rationalism 171 6.3 Conclusion 178 6.3.1 A link to other responses 179 Chapter 7: Democratic Pragmatism in Cyprus 181 7.1 Chapter overview 181 7.2 Democratic pragmatism in Cyprus 182 7.2.1 Approaches and practices 183 6 7.2.2 Basic entities recognised or constructed 189 7.2.3 Assumptions about natural relationships 191 7.2.4 Agents and their motives 194 7.2.5 Key metaphors and rhetorical devices 198 7.2.6 Practical challenges of democratic pragmatism 203 7.3 Conclusion 206 7.3.1 A link to other responses 208 Chapter 8: Economic Rationalism in Cyprus 210 8.1 Chapter overview 210 8.2 Economic rationalism in Cyprus 211 8.2.1 Markets and incentives 211 8.2.2 Basic entities recognised or constructed 219 8.2.3 Assumptions about natural relationships 225 8.2.4 Agents and their motives 228 8.2.5 Key metaphors and rhetorical devices 229 8.2.6 Practical challenges of economic rationalism 231 8.3 Conclusion 238 8.3.1 A link to other responses and building on the findings 240 Chapter 9: Conclusions 242 9.1 Chapter overview 242 9.2 Applicability of the problem-solving rationalities in Cyprus 242 9.2.1 Administrative rationalism 242 9.2.2 Democratic pragmatism 244 9.2.3 Economic rationalism 246 9.2.4 Summary of applicability 248 9.2.5 The utility of the rationalities 250 9.3 Emerging themes 251 9.3.1 Sequentiality and the evolution of problem-solving 251 9.3.2 The role and influence of supranational governance 254 9.3.3 The importance of culture and economic status 260 9.3.4 The role and influence of politics 266 9.4 Conclusion 270 7 9.4.1 Outcomes of the thesis 273 9.4.2 Reflecting on the findings and key points 274 9.4.3 Further research 276 References 278 Appendix