Framing Short Film: Cultural Nationalism and Economic Rationalism in New Zealand Film Policy Emma Blomkamp A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Film, Television and Media Studies, The University of Auckland, 2009 0 Abstract Short film is a dynamic field of cultural production where filmmakers explore representations of social identity and experiment with various aesthetic and technical modes of cinematic communication. New Zealand short fiction film receives a relatively substantial sum of public funding and has gained an impressive international reputation. Overshadowed by the more visible medium of feature-length movies, however, short filmmaking attracts scant attention in policy discourse or film scholarship. This thesis investigates the neglected art form and significant sector of cinematic research and development that is short film. Situating short film funding programmes in relation to hegemonic and competing discourses in New Zealand cultural policy, I examine the shifting rationales that justify offering public finance to filmmakers. After tracing the institutionalisation of cultural nationalism and economic rationalism within film policy, this thesis considers the rise of creative industries’ discourse and the heightened attention given to film by the fifth Labour government. Interestingly, the recent discursive emphasis on filmmaking as a valuable industry, effective nation-branding tool and critical site of social communication has not resulted in significant changes to short film funding policies. There has nonetheless been an alignment between the short film programmes administered by the New Zealand Film Commission and Creative New Zealand, which suggests that the application of strategic goals and performance measures is entrenched in the dominant approach to film policymaking. Interrogating the dominant framing of short film as a means of talent development, this thesis examines the funding process and outcomes of the Short Film Fund from 1997 to 2007. My analysis focuses on the devolved funding decisions made by executive producers, as well as on the scheme’s evaluation by the New Zealand Film Commission. A close reading of a sample of short films illustrates the high quality but limited representations resulting from the framing of short film as a ‘calling card’ for future feature filmmakers. I find that whilst forms of economic rationalist discourse are employed to legitimise the allocation of public funds to short filmmaking, they fail to demonstrate the intangible contributions of short film to New Zealand cinema and the cultural public sphere. ii This thesis is dedicated to all the inspirational teachers in my life, especially, in loving memory of, Heather Grierson Campbell iii Acknowledgements My sincerest gratitude is extended to my excellent supervisors Shuchi Kothari and Jennifer Curtin for their motivating meetings, sage advice, warm encouragement and constructive feedback. My interviewees generously shared their time and expertise. I am especially appreciative of the helpful contributions made by Catherine Fitzgerald and Sandy Gildea, and the many requests for material met by Juliette Veber and Lucy Cleary of the New Zealand Film Commission. Completing this degree would not have been possible without financial assistance from the University of Auckland and the New Zealand Government. For their moral support, even when they wonder why I’m still studying, I’d like to thank my whanau, especially my parents, Mark, who taught me how to question, and Catherine, who taught me what to question, and who has helped me keep my balance in so many ways. For their willingness to help and attention to detail, my gratitude goes to my proofreaders: Andrew Simpson, Catherine Blomkamp, Sandy Gildea and Natasha Crooks. Finally, to all my friends, flatmates and colleagues who have shared coffee, cooked me meals, and lent me their ears: thank you so much for making this past year all the more manageable and enjoyable. iv Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION …………............................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v GLOSSARY ………….............................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 Framing short film: forms and functions ...................................................................................... 4 Recent film funding policy and relevant scholarship in New Zealand ........................................ 7 Studying film funding as cultural policy: issues of theory and method ..................................... 12 CHAPTER TWO: A BRIEF HISTORY OF FILM FUNDING IN NEW ZEALAND ............. 21 Cultural nationalism and industry development emerge and merge as policy frames ............... 21 Competing discourses in arts policy: multiculturalism and biculturalism ............................ 24 Economic rationalism hits (and sometimes misses) 1980s-1990s cultural policy................. 26 The NZFC adopts the dominant discourse ................................................................................. 31 Backlash: conflict between the NZFC and the film community in the 1990s ........................... 35 Framing debates on the NZFC ................................................................................................... 36 Beyond 2000: national cultural policy in a global knowledge economy ................................... 39 Filmmakers threatened by the Third Way? ................................................................................ 44 Summary: trends in New Zealand film policy ........................................................................... 46 CHAPTER THREE: SHORT FILM FUNDING POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES IN NEW ZEALAND........................................................................................................................................ 50 Creative New Zealand’s support for films ................................................................................. 51 NZFC support for short films ..................................................................................................... 57 Shifting definitions of ‘short’ films ............................................................................................ 62 Relationship between government policy and the NZFC Short Film Fund ............................... 65 Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER FOUR: MEASURING SUCCESS IN NZFC SHORT FILMMAKING ................. 78 Measuring production targets ..................................................................................................... 79 EP criterion: script quality .......................................................................................................... 81 EP criterion: experience and potential of the creative team ....................................................... 90 NZFC goal: transition from short to feature filmmaking ........................................................... 93 NZFC goal: support Maori filmmakers ...................................................................................... 96 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 99 v CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATING NZFC SHORT FILMS AS CULTURAL CAPITAL/NATIONAL IDENTITY............................................................................................ 103 Short film production as national cinema ................................................................................ 105 Short film analysis .................................................................................................................... 107 Narrative ............................................................................................................................. 107 Characters ........................................................................................................................... 110 Genre .................................................................................................................................. 114 Codes and conventions ....................................................................................................... 117 National myths ................................................................................................................... 120 Innovation and conformity ....................................................................................................... 125 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 127 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 131 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Sources of short film funding (1998/99-2003) ...............................................