The linguistic norm in Northern Catalonia and community members’ attitude towards their own language Gemma Gómez Duran (Barcelona) Joan Peytaví Deixona (Perpinyà) Summary: Standard Catalan is based on the Central dialect and, specifically, on Barce- lona speech. However, there are standard variants for all dialects, except for the North- ern one. Furthermore, the sociolinguistic situation in Northern Catalan differs from that in other Catalan-speaking territories in that the language has almost disappeared. Some cultural activists are still trying to recover the Catalan language by using it in as many situations as possible. The objective of this article is to analyse the variety of Catalan – standard or dialectal forms – used in literature, the media, and education and what this usage demonstrates about Northern Catalans’ attitudes towards their own language. Keywords: Northern Catalan, standard Catalan, sociolinguistics, language attitudes Received: 16-09-2016 ∙ Revised version received: 17-02-2017 ∙ Accepted: 23-02-2017 Northern Catalonia is the Catalan-speaking area located in the Pyrénées Ori- entales department, which includes the southernmost portion of France’s Mediterranean coast. This department is divided into six regions. The Northern Catalan dialect is spoken in four of them: Rosselló, Vallespir, Conflent and Capcir. The Central dialect, also spoken in Barcelona (with a few differences), is spoken in the Cerdanya. The department also includes the Occitan-speaking region of Fenolhedés. The normative of Catalan is based on the Barcelona dialect, but the Institut d’Estudis Catalans (IEC), the institution that officially regulates standards for the Catalan language, has also provided specifications for normative varieties of all dialects, except the Northern one. The aim of this article is to analyse the kind of language that Northern speakers use today in formal situations, in terms of the rela- tionship between dialectal and normative forms. Their views regarding the use of normative Catalan in Northern Catalonia will be analysed in order Zeitschrift für Katalanistik 31 (2018), 287–309 ISSN 0932-2221 · eISSN 2199-7276 288 Gemma Gómez Duran · Joan Peytaví Deixona to determine if any normative-dialectal diglossia is present, and to examine what this reveals about community members’ attitudes toward their own language. In order to better contextualize the current situation in Northern Catalonia, some historical perspective will be included, beginning with the work of Northern Catalan intellectuals in the latter half of the 20th century. First, however, it is necessary to define and clarify some of the terms used in this article. The name “Catalonia” (or Principat, “Principality”) refers to the region in North-Eastern Spain. The region now known as Northern Catalonia was part of the Principat until 1659, when the Hispanic Monarchy ceded the north-easternmost counties of Catalonia to the King- dom of France under the Treaty of the Pyrenees; thus, Northern Catalonia has been under French administration for more than 350 years. The most widely spoken dialect in Catalonia is the central one, which is spoken in the major cities of Barcelona, Girona, and Tarragona; a different dialect known as Northwestern Catalan is spoken in the western part of Catalonia, which includes the city of Lleida. In Northern Catalonia, the most widely spoken dialect is the Rossellonès or Northern dialect; as has already been stated, it is spoken in the Rosselló, Conflent, Capcir, and Vallespir regions, while Central Catalan is spoken in Cerdanya. Catalonia and Northern Catalonia are two components of the Catalan Countries (Països Catalans), a name given to the Catalan-speaking territories as a whole. The Catalan Countries also include the Balearic Islands, Valencia, the Franja de Ponent (eastern fringe) in Aragon, the microstate of Andorra, and the city of Alguer (Al- ghero) on Sardinia. This article uses Catalan placenames, including “Ros- selló” (Roussillon in French), when no genuinely English term (e.g. Catalo- nia) exists. The situation of Catalan in Northern Catalonia is extremely delicate with regards to almost all of the nine factors that determine the vitality of a lan- guage (UNESCO, 2003), which we are going to examine. This situation must be taken into account in order to understand the position of North- ern Catalan speakers. The latest survey, the Enquesta d’Usos Lingüístics a la Catalunya del Nord (EULCN, 2016), shows that only the 1.3% of the popu- lation habitually speak Catalan, while 4.4% speak both Catalan and French and 87.1% speak only French. The remaining 7.1% belong to other lin- guistic profiles, including immigrants who speak a third language. This sur- vey does not give the absolute number of speakers, but it does provide the The linguistic norm in Northern Catalonia 289 rate of intergenerational language transmission, which is lower than 1%. The most positive data is that a majority of Northern Catalans believe that Catalan should be more widely taught in schools and have a greater pres- ence in social events. The Catalan language has currently no official status in France and is present in only a few media outlets in the area; its pres- ence is entirely lacking in many other domains. The number of children learning Catalan is limited and the vast majority of the available pedagogi- cal material for teaching literacy and other subjects is in other dialectal forms, primarily Central Catalan. The sociolinguistic context in Northern Catalonia differs greatly from that of the dialectal areas that are located in Spain, and particularly from that of the neighbouring Principat, where the Catalan language is most widely spoken. This specificity must be examined in order to better under- stand the positions that Northern Catalans have adopted with regards to the language model they believe ought to be used in Northern Catalonia. Northern Catalonia administratively belongs to France, a centralist state par excellence that has created a strong national consciousness inextricably linked to the French language. Since the annexation of the northern Catalan counties under the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, the population living between the mountains of Corberes, in the North of the Pyrenées-Orientales department, and the mountains of Albera, in the South, has been influ- enced by a system of propaganda that glorifies the official culture of the French nation-state, while demeaning all other cultures present within the “national territory” and relegating them to the sphere of family and village life. The local Catalan population, like many others in the case of the con- struction of the French nation-state, took advantage of the economic boost that the country was experiencing and further assumed the new model built from the French Revolution and the republican model of the 19th century: in many ways, France has been the state that provided people a hopeful future as citizens and opportunities for socioeconomic advance- ment. Beginning in the late 19th century, the creation of a national conscious- ness tied to the French language was aided by a new French institution, the instruction publique or state school system. The 1881 Jules Ferry law defini- tively established free secular education in French. The effects of such changes were studied by the historian Eugen Weber, who sought to explain the process of transforming “Peasants into Frenchmen” (Weber, 1983). In the 20th century, the model of a rural society made up of small towns was left behind. Agriculture did not provide social advancement and 290 Gemma Gómez Duran · Joan Peytaví Deixona was associated with former times. Now, modernity imposed other models that were spread to all households through mass media, especially after cinema, radio and television became widespread. The language spoken by the characters that appeared on the small screen was French. These changes obviously had sociolinguistic consequences, but the effects of key political events must also be taken into account, namely the two World Wars. The conflict of 1914–1918 sent the Catalan-speaking youth to fight, for the first time, against an enemy they shared with all French citizens. This bloodshed created an irreversible bond. More than 8,500 Northern Catalan soldiers perished fighting for France in this con- flict. The first natively bilingual generations began to emerge after the war. These were the people who would experience the Second World War of 1940–1945. Once again, Northern Catalans went to fight for France, at a time of growing French nationalist sentiment. The members of this bilin- gual generation would definitively interrupt the linguistic transmission of the Catalan language to their children. The moment in which this intergeneration transmission ceased varied according to each family’s social and geographic situation, but it can be affirmed that this social or socio- linguistic practice of speaking only French to children was introduced roughly during the war years (Puig Moreno, 1979; Verdaguer, 1992). In order to analyse how debates around the proper language model devel- oped in Northern Catalonia, it is necessary to understand the sociolinguis- tic and political situation in this region. Northern Catalonia was a society that associated its own language with an outdated model that was only suitable for use in certain restricted areas; it was not considered suitable for use in formal situations and high literature. However, the process of lan- guage normalization that took place in the Principat between the end of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century led to a fairly intense debate among Northern Catalan intellectuals. For a detailed discussion of this debate, see the recent studies by August Rafanell (2007) and Nicolas Ber- joan (2011). Disputes about the language of Northern Catalonia have always been of minor nature; there has never been a linguistic secessionist movement, such as those found in some Catalan-speaking areas like Valencia (where some locals argue that Valencian is a separate language from Catalan, despite consensus among linguists that they are the same language).