Non-government Organisations and the Australian Government: A Dual Strategy of Public Advocacy for NGOs Joan Staples A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Politics and International Relations, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences The University of New South Wales May 2012 ii COPYRIGHT STATEMENT I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). 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ORIGINALITY STATEMENT I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Signed …………………………………………….............. Date …………………………………………….................. iii iv Acknowledgements Tackling this project has been a learning experience par excellence. It has not only meant learning about completing a large academic study, but it has also been a project of self-discovery—giving meaning and shape to some of my work in past years. It has been an opportunity to re-examine my time as Australian Conservation Foundation lobbyist during the Hawke Government, and to investigate those political events of the past quarter century that impacted on the NGO environment sector. It is also satisfying to end the project with a concept of the democratic role of the NGO sector that is based on both a theoretical and practical understanding. I have been fortunate to have an academic supervisor, Dr. Sarah Maddison, and a co- supervisor, Dr. Kath Gelber, both of whom have continually supported and encouraged me. Their intellectual rigour and academic skills were inspiring, and I have learned much from each of them. Their warmth and positive approach kept me going in the difficult situation of writing this thesis away from the support of a university environment. I thank them both most sincerely. I would also like to thank the former parliamentary and NGO leaders, as acknowledged in the text, who gave their time in being interviewed. The contribution they so generously provided gave fresh perspectives on known events, or supplied new material that has not been publicly recorded. I am also grateful to the many colleagues and friends from the NGO sector and academia who have continually expressed interest in this study. Discussions frequently spurred me to new ideas that enriched the work, and their commitment to its aim was a pleasure to share. Last, but not least, I wish to thank my partner, Barry Crisp, for his support and encouragement. v vi Abstract This thesis asks the question, ‘What are the most effective, long-term strategies for engagement with the state by non-government organisations’ (NGOs’) and how might such strategies be conceptualised?’ A ‘dual strategy’ of NGOs working both outside the state and in conjunction with it has been suggested by a number of authors as an effective strategy for NGOs, and a specific formulation of a ‘dual strategy’ that also includes NGOs maintaining their independence of political parties is developed by the author. The case study examined by the thesis is the relationship between the Australian government and two environment organisations, the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) and The Wilderness Society (TWS), during the Hawke, Keating and Howard governments (1983–2007). Using primary and secondary research, the thesis seeks to test its formulation of a ‘dual strategy’ by researching the extent to which ACF and TWS adopted or moved away from it and how this impacted on their advocacy. The various orientations that the Hawke, Keating and Howard governments expressed in their relationships with NGOs, and with ACF/TWS in particular, are conceptualised within three analytical frameworks: pluralism, corporatism and public choice theory. The primary research includes interviews with 21 former federal ministers, shadow ministers, parliamentary advisors and non-government leaders who were significantly involved in the relationship between ACF/TWS and the federal government during the 24-year period. The conclusions of the thesis confirm the effectiveness of a ‘dual strategy’, but also refine its application. These findings aim to extend contemporary debate on the democratic role of NGOs in Australia and to suggest some principles and practices in relation to public advocacy for the sector to consider. vii viii Contents Originality Statement.....................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................v Abstract..........................................................................................................................vii Introduction.....................................................................................................................1 NGO Context in Australia.............................................................................................4 The Value of NGOs to Democracy...............................................................................6 Overview of the Thesis .................................................................................................8 Part 1: Theoretical and Historical Framework..........................................................11 Chapter 1: Methodology...............................................................................................11 Defining the Sector .....................................................................................................11 Issues in the Thesis Design .........................................................................................19 Choice of ACF and TWS ............................................................................................24 Method ........................................................................................................................25 Chapter 2: Pluralism, Corporatism, Public Choice Theory and a Dual Strategy ..30 Pluralism .....................................................................................................................30 Corporatism.................................................................................................................35 Public Choice Theory..................................................................................................43 A Dual Strategy...........................................................................................................47 Summary .....................................................................................................................58 Chapter 3: Understanding Australian NGOs: The Research and Policy Environment..................................................................................................................59 The Changing Political Context..................................................................................59 The Howard Government and Public Choice Theory.................................................68 Misinterpreting NGO ‘Accountability’ and Accommodating Public Choice Theory 74 The ‘Silencing Dissent’ Thesis ...................................................................................79 Summary .....................................................................................................................84 ix x Part II: ACF/TWS and the Australian Government: 1983–2007............................86 Chapter 4: The Hawke Labor Government ...............................................................86 Entering into Electoral Endorsement in 1983 .............................................................87