CONCEPTUALIZATION, F OPERATIONALIZATION, 3 AND MEASUREMENT What You'll Learn in This Chapter You'll see how the interrelated steps of conceptualization, operationalization, and measurement allow researchers to turn a general idea for a research topic into useful and valid measurements in the real world. You'll also see that an essential part of this process involves transforming the relatively vague terms of ordinary language into precise objects of study with well-defined and measurable meanings. In this chapter. An Opening Quandary eople sometimes doubt the social re- Introduction P searcher's ability to measure and study Measuring Anything That Exists things that matter. For many people, for ex- Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality ample, religious faith is a deep and impor- Conceptions as Constructs tant part of life. Yet both the religious and the nonreligious might question the social re- Conceptualization searcher's ability to measure how religious a Indicators and Dimensions given person or group is and-even more The Interchangeability of Indicators difficult a measurement-why some people Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions are religious and others not. Creating Conceptual Order This chapter will show that social re- An Example of Conceptualization: The Concept searchers can't say definitively who is reli- of Anomie gious and who is not, nor what percentage of Definitions in Descriptive and Explanatory people in a particular population are reli- Studies gious, but they can to an extent determine Operationalization Choices the causes of religiosity. How can that be? Range of Variation Variations between the Extremes A Note on Dimensions Defining Variables and Attributes Levels of Wleasurement INTRODUCTION Single or Multiple Indicators Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices This chapter and the next deal with how re- Operationalization Goes On and On searchers move from a general idea about what to Criteria of Measurement Quality study to effective and well-defined measurements Precision and Accuracy in the real world. This chapter discusses the inter- Reliability related processes of conceptualization, opera- Validity tionalization, and measurement. Chapter 6 builds Who Decides What's Valid? on this foundation to discuss types of measure- Tension between Reliability and Validity ments that are more complex. A Quandary Revisited \Me begin this chapter by confronting the hidden concern people sometimes have about whether it's Main Points truly possible to measure the stuff of life: love, hate, Key Terms prejudice, religiosity, radicalism, alienation. Over Review Questions the next few pages, we'll see that researchers can measure anything that exists. Once that point has Additional Readings been established, we'll turn to the steps involved Multimedia Resources in actual measurement. 122 CHAPTER 5 CONCEPTUALIZATION, OPERATIONALIZATION, AND MEASUREMEN1 MEASURING ANYTHING THAT EXISTS Earlier in this book, 1 said that one of the two pillars of science is observation. Because this word can suggest a casual, passive activity, scientists often use the term measurement instead, meaning care- ful, deliberate observations of the real world for the purpose of describing objects and events in terms of the attributes composing a variable. Like the people in the Opening Quandary, you may have some reservations about the ability of science to measure the really important aspects of human social existence. If you've read research re- ports dealing with something like liberalism or re- ligion or prejudice, you may have been dissatisfied with the way the researchers measured whatever they were studying. You may have felt that they were too superficial, missing the aspects that really matter most. Maybe they measured religiosity as the number of times a person went to religious services, or liberalism by how people voted in a single election. Your dissatisfaction would surely have increased if you had found yourself being misclassified by the measurement system. Your dissatisfaction reflects an important fact about social research: Most of the variables we want to study do not actually exist in the way that rocks exist, Indeed, they are made up. More- over, they seldom have a single, unambiguous meaning. To see what I mean, suppose we want to study political party aJ1iation. To measure this variable, we might consult the list of registered voters to note whether the people we were studying were registered as Democrats or Republicans and take that as a measure of their party affiliation. But we could also simply ask someone what party they identify with and take their response as our mea- sure. Notice that these two different measurement possibilities reflect somewhat different definitions of "political party affiliation." They might even pro- duce different results: Someone may have regis- tered as a Democrat years ago but gravitated more and more toward a Republican philosophy over time. Or someone who is registered with neither political party may, when asked, say she is affiliated with the one she feels MEASURING ANYTHING THAT EXISTS 123 We learned about "ethnic cleansing" and wars our conceptions and the things we observe that are in which one ethnic group tried to eradicate related to those conceptions. These terms make another. it possible for us to communicate and eventually agree on what we will specifically mean by those With additional experience, we noticed some- terms. In social research, the process of coming to thing more. People who participated in lynching an agreement about what terms mean is conceptu- were also quite likely to call African Americans alization, and the result is called a concept. ugly names. A lot of them, moreover, seemed to Let's take another example of a conception. want women to "stay in their place." Eventually it Suppose that I'm going to meet someone named dawned on us that these several tendencies often Pat, whom you already know. I ask you what Pat is appeared together in the same people and also had like. Now suppose that you've seen Pat help lost something in common. At some point, someone children find their parents and put a tiny bird back had a bright idea: "Let's use the wordprejudicecf for in its nest. Pat got you to take turkeys to poor fam- people like that. We can use the term even if they ilies on Thanksgiving and to visit a children's hos- don't do all those things-as long as they're pretty pital at Christmas. You've seen Pat weep through a much like that." movie about a mother overcoming adversities to Being basically agreeable and interested in save and protect her child. As you search through efficiency, we agreed to go along with the system. your mental files, you may find all or most of those That's where "prejudice" came from. We never ob- phenomena recorded on a single sheet labeled served it. We just agreed to use it as a shortcut, a "compassionate." You look over the other entries name that represents a collection of apparently re- on the page, and you find they seem to provide lated phenomena that we've each observed in the an accurate description of Pat. So you say, "Pat is course of life. In short, we made it up. compassionate." Here's another clue that prejudice isn't some- Now I leaf through my own mental file drawer thing that exists apart from our rough agreement to until I find a sheet marked "compassionate." I then use the term in a certain way. Each of us develops look over the things written on my sheet, and I say, our own mental image of what the set of real phe- "Oh, that's nice." I now feel I know what Pat is like, nomena we've observed represents in general and but my expectations reflect the entries on my file what these phenomena have in common. When I sheet, not yours. Later, when I meet Pat, I happen say the word pi-ejudice, it evokes a mental image in to find that my own experiences correspond to the your mind, just as it evokes one in mine. It's as entries 1 have on my "compassionate" file sheet, though file drawers in our minds contained thou- and I say that you sure were right. But suppose my sands of sheets of paper, with each sheet of paper observations of Pat contradict the things I have on labeled in the upper right-hand corner. A sheet of my file sheet. I tell you that I don't think Pat is very paper in each of our minds has the term prejudice compassionate, and we begin to compare notes. on it. On your sheet are all the things you've been You say, "I once saw Pat weep through a movie told about prejudice and everything you've ob- about a mother overcoming adversity to save and served that seems to be an example of it. My sheet protect her child." I look at my "compassionate has what I've been told about it plus all the things sheet" and can't find anything like that. Looking I've observed that seem examples of it-and mine elsewhere in my file, I locate that sort of phenome- isn't the same as yours. non on a sheet labeled "sentimental." I retort, The technical term for those mental images, "That's not compassion. That's just sentimentality." those sheets of paper in our mental file drawers, is To further strengthen my case, I tell you that I coi~ception.That is, I have a conception of preju- saw Pat refuse to give money to an organization dice, and so do you. We can't communicate these dedicated to saving whales from extinction. "That mental images directly, so we use the terms written represents a lack of compassion," I argue.