Complex Imperialism: atrocity propaganda, liberalism and humanitarianism in the British Empire and Australia during the First World War EMILY ROBERTSON A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities and Social Sciences Canberra Campus November 2016 ii Abstract Despite the large body of research generated by Australian historians about the First World War, little work has been done on the atrocity propaganda that was produced during the conflict. Nor has there been adequate investigation into the humanitarian ideals that influenced atrocity propaganda, and the role these ideals played in gaining support for the war. As a consequence, the multifaceted reasons behind why Australians supported or condemned the First World War have been neglected. Instead, some Australian historians have depicted support for the war as having been driven by unthinking imperial sentiment that was fed by jingoistic government propaganda. This thesis demonstrates that imperial sentiment was in fact far more complex, and was not merely jingoistic. It establishes that imperial sentiment was influenced by a variety of ideological and political factors that heavily impacted upon how Australians regarded the moral legitimacy of the war. One of the primary forms of imperial sentiment that influenced Australian support for the war was liberal humanitarian imperial sentiment. Liberal humanitarian imperial sentiment mobilised people to support the Great War not simply on the grounds that it was a war fought on behalf of the British Empire, but also because it was a just war. It both influenced, and was influenced by, Great War atrocity propaganda. Through an investigation of atrocity propaganda and the liberal and humanitarian ideals that largely underpinned it, this study demonstrates that Australians had a complicated relationship with the British Empire. I establish that liberal imperial humanitarian sentiment was vital in securing support for the war in two communities that had an ambivalent and sometimes extremely negative engagement with the British Empire: the labour movement and the Irish Australian community. This thesis provides an original contribution to the field of Australian historical studies in three ways. Firstly, it provides a new interpretation of how Australians engaged with war propaganda: they were not passive recipients who embraced the war after being exposed to propaganda. Instead they were also producers of pro and anti war propaganda who worked in a politically contested space. Secondly, by showing that not all Australian supporters of the war were imperial jingoists, this thesis provides a more nuanced portrait of how Australians related to the British Empire. Imperial sentiment was not restricted to simple patriotism – it also was concerned with moral and ethical issues that were intertwined with liberalism and humanitarianism. This thesis proposes that the liberal imperial humanitarian sentiment contained in atrocity propaganda was of crucial importance in gaining Australian approval of the war. Atrocity propaganda contended that it was the duty of the British to protect Belgian civilians from the violence of the German military. This humanitarian interventionist argument appealed strongly to liberal imperialists. Thirdly, by mapping out the multidimensional relationship that Australians had with the British Empire, liberalism and atrocity propaganda, the thesis provides new insights into the political complexities that influenced whether Australians supported or opposed the war. iii Acknowledgements This thesis has only been possible through the help, support, and encouragement of many individuals and institutions. Several people at UNSW Canberra were of great assistance. First and foremost, my supervisor David Blaazer provided excellent insight into my thesis topic, as well as sensitive and useful editing. I was also fortunate to have Neil Ramsey as my co-supervisor - it was always a pleasure to discuss my work with him. I’d also like to thank Peter Stanley, who gave constructive feedback about style. In addition to my immediate supervision, I was fortunate to receive support and advice from Australian historians at other universities. Frank Bongiorno from the Australian National University and Bart Ziino from Deakin University both gave me valuable advice. I also received wonderful support and care from friends and family. It has been a delight to share my thesis journey with fellow students Kelly Frame, Kerry Neale and Umut Ozguc. My father Paul Robertson has assisted me throughout this project, supplying both much needed financial assistance and enthusiasm. My sister Sarah has been a long time fellow sufferer of the PhD experience, and has been a great source of strength. Finally, and most importantly, I am deeply grateful to my partner Jason for his patience and support over the course of this thesis. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii List of Images vi Abbreviations viii INTRODUCTION ‘Manufactured hatred’: the ethics and political impact of atrocity propaganda in Australia 1914-1918 9 Defining jingoistic imperial sentiment and liberal humanitarian imperial sentiment 20 A reappraisal of the ethics of propaganda 42 Just War and ‘moral force’ 54 Politics, ideology and propaganda 59 CHAPTER ONE Truth, lies and credibility: the reputation of atrocity propaganda and the First World War in Great Britain and Australia 1927-2014 65 Historical reassessment of German atrocities in Belgium 70 Great War atrocity propaganda and the Nazis 59 The Bryce Report, rape and warfare 95 Atrocity propaganda and international law 107 CHAPTER TWO Selling war, opposing war: propaganda as a contested space during the First World War 122 Pro-war propaganda 133 Atrocity propaganda in Australia: an overview 140 CHAPTER THREE ‘Merciless humanitarians’: altruism, imperialism, race and the creation of the German ‘Hun’ 1876-1918 155 Humanitarian intervention and ‘altruism’ in an age of realpolitik 160 White Barbarism and the ‘Hun’ 189 Liberalism and war in the twentieth century 198 CHAPTER FOUR ‘A heartfelt sympathy’: British liberalism, Home Rule and Irish Australian responses to the Empire at war 1899-1918 201 Just and unjust war: British liberal responses to South Africa and Belgium 209 The South African War and atrocities 222 Liberalism, imperialism and Irish Australian support for the war 232 The limits of liberal consensus 238 CHAPTER FIVE The division in the labour movement over the First World War: liberalism, socialism, atrocity propaganda and Empire 257 The South African War and the labour movement 263 The Australian working class and the British Empire 268 Liberal imperialism and labour movement support for the Great War 274 Anti-war sentiment and the limits of liberalism in the labour movement 297 v CHAPTER SIX A much misunderstood monster: the German ogre and Australia’s final and forgotten recruiting campaign of the Great War 309 Misdating and misconceptions 316 Reframing the ‘German Monster’ 321 Conclusion ‘The Great War for Civilisation’: reframing the Great War in Australia 343 BIBLIOGRAPHY 356 vi List of Images Figure Page 1 Emilio Kupfer, ‘The Soul of the Hun’ 15 2 Cadbury, [The Tie That Binds] 26 3 Artist unknown, ‘SOUDAN WAR, 1885: Attack by the Arabs on the Commissariat’ 27 4 A. Sutherland, ‘Defence of Mafeking’, c.1899 -1902 37 5 British South African War postcard, c. 1899-1902 37 6 Louis Raemaekers, ‘Seduction’, 1915 74 7 ‘The Woman Soldatovitch’, 1916. 104 8 George Grosz, Murder in Ackerstrasse, 1916-17 107 9 Louis Raemaekers, ‘The exhumation of the Martyrs of Aerschot’, 1915 108 10 ‘Men of Britain’ 117 11 W.A. Gullick, ‘Enlist’ 119 12 C. Ensor, ‘Conscription and Death’ 132 13 David Henry Souter. 'It is nice in the surf, but what about the men in the trenches?' 135 14 ‘Australia’s Imperishable record’, printed by Farmer’s Sydney, published by the N.S.W. government, c. 1914-1916 137 15 Henry J. Weston, ‘Would You Stand by While a Bushfire Raged?’, N.S.W. Recruiting Committee, 1917 138 16 ‘Don’t Falter Go and meet the Hun Menace’, John Sands, N.S.W. Recruiting Committee, c.1915-1918 139 17 ‘War Supplement to The Statesman and Mining Standard’, 8 July 1915, Queensland Recruiting Committee Records 1914-1918 149 18 German Barbarities in Russia: the evidence illustrated, published by the Authority of the Imperial Russian Government, Australia, Critchley Parker, 1916 151 19 Norman Lindsay, the Bulletin, 6 May 1915 153 20 John Tenniel, ‘A Strong Appeal’, Punch, 26 September 1896 180 21 Edmund Sullivan, ‘The Prussian Butcher’, from The Kaiser’s Garland 191 22 John Tenniel, ‘Times Waxworks’, Punch, 31 December 1881. 192 23 Norman Lindsay, ‘Reprisals’, The Bulletin, 19 July 1917 193 vii 24 ‘The only good German is a dead German’, calendar supplement to the Australian Statesman and Mining Standard, 15 February 1917 194 25 Fred Leist, ‘An Ominous Start’, the Bulletin, 18 November 1899 217 26 Lizzie van Zyl in the Camp Hospital, Bloemfontein, 1900-01 226 27 ‘In a Boer Concentration Camp’, The World’s News, 4 January 1902 227 28 ‘The Mafeking Mania’, The Tocsin, 24 May 1900 267 29 Syd Nicholls, Direct Action, January 15 1916. 282 30 ‘Workers of the World Unite!’ Westralian Worker, 4 September 1914 291 31 Will Dyson, ‘Back into the pit’, The Kingdom of Shylock, 1917 298 32 Syd Nicholls, ‘War what for?’, Direct Action, 10 August 1914 304 33 Syd Nicholls, Untitled, Direct Action, 15 August 1915. 306 34 Norman Lindsay, ‘German Monster’, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918 311 35 Norman Lindsay, ‘Will you fight now or wait for This?’, 1918 313 36 Norman Lindsay, detail, from ‘The Military Situation/Australia’s Deadly Peril/Your Help is Needed’ pamphlet, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918 324 37 Norman Lindsay, ‘Peace by negotiation’, from ‘The Military Situation/Australia’s Deadly Peril/Your Help is Needed’, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918 327 38 ‘The gun with the greatest range’, Melbourne Punch, 16 August 1917 332 39 Norman Lindsay, ‘Where Germany Prays’, Commonwealth of Australia, 1918 335 viii Abbreviations A.I.F.