THE SEMIOTICS OF REVIVALIST ISLAM: WOMEN, SPACE, AND STORIES IN PAKISTAN’S ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS By Meryem Fatima Zaman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Anthropology – Doctor of Philosophy 2014 ABSTRACT THE SEMIOTICS OF REVIVALIST ISLAM: WOMEN, SPACE, AND STORIES IN PAKISTAN’S ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS By Meryem Fatima Zaman Large numbers of urban Pakistani women are adopting sartorial and behavioral markers associated with the global Islamic revival and are participating in Islamic revivalist movements. Many Pakistanis find this increase troubling, and feel that it betokens an increase in “extremism” in Pakistan. Women’s participation in these movements is controversial, and results in conflicts with their families, friends, and social networks. As they participate in revivalist movements, women are introduced to Islamic sacred texts (the Qur’an and Hadith), which movement leadership interpret in ways that support the reformist mission of their particular movement. Revivalist leaders draw on Islamic sacred texts to promote visions of a pure Islamic society, and call on women to restrict their spending and socialization habits, and to reject many aspects of Pakistani society as “un-Islamic.” This dissertation examines women’s participation in Islamic revivalism in Pakistan through a focus on women’s participation in the Tablighi Jama’at and the Al-Huda Welfare Trust. The relative gendered composition of these movements makes a comparative approach particularly instructive; the Tablighi Jama’at is a male-led movement which incorporates women as accessories, while Al-Huda is female-led and was founded exclusively for women. These movements, and Pakistani reactions to them, illustrate Pakistani beliefs regarding gender, purified religion, and ideas of culture. A study of these movements speaks to theoretical concerns regarding the Islamic revival as a global movement, and to the role of the religious resurgence in Pakistan. I explore these movements through the following guiding questions: (1) Are women’s experiences in women-led movements different from those that are strongly male-centered?; (2) how do the differences among revivalist movements impact women’s learning experience and utilization of sacred texts within and outside revivalist settings?; (3) to what extent do women contribute to the revivalist theology and ideology that guides their lives? Is this process different based on the movement a woman joins?; and (4) how does revivalism impact the social landscape of urban Pakistan? Two unifying analytical themes run through this dissertation and provide a framework through which I answer my research questions. The first is an examination of the contestations and discourses surrounding gendered piety, and the ways in which these confrontations delineate the urban Pakistani discursive field. The second theme concerns meaning-making within the Tablighi Jama’at and Al-Huda, and interrogates the processes through which revivalist knowledges are created and maintained. My dissertation traces the processes through which revivalist subjects emerge, with a focus on the ways in which revivalist women contribute to the discourses which form their subjecthood and subjectivities. I argue that women’s agency is not limited to their self-creation as subjects, but extends to their participation in the creation of the discourses to which they subject themselves. My research reveals that female members of the Tablighi Jama’at and Al- Huda create movement structures and messages through their participation in these movements, actively contributing to revivalist ideology and meaning. The mechanisms of women’s contributions are similar across movements, and women in both movements contribute significantly to the revivalist discourse, rhetoric, and theology they adopt. Copyright by MERYEM FATIMA ZAMAN 2014 For my mother Dr. Iffat Zaman, who taught me how to read, and my father Dr. Azad Zaman, who taught me how to write. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This doctoral dissertation is a significant milestone along a journey of craft, practice, and intellectual engagement. As such, it is the product of the generosity and input of multiple mentors, colleagues, and friends. I would like to thank my professors at Monmouth College, Dr. Petra Kuppinger, Dr. Farhat Haq, Dr. Rob Hale, and Dr. Mark Wilhardt, whose early attention towards my writing and analytical skills significantly shaped my academic trajectory. The enthusiasm for learning and analysis which they kindled within me is my constant companion. I owe significant debts of gratitude to my dissertation committee and professors at Michigan State University. My dissertation advisor Dr. Mara Leichtman’s critique and council have guided me through the process of conducting research. Her measured comments and attention to my writing have improved my work immensely. Dr. Mindy Morgan’s consistent commitment, encouragement, and support were essential to the completion of this project. Phone appointments with her while I was away from MSU always untangled intellectual knots and provided me with fresh insights. Dr. Elizabeth Drexler and Dr. Mohammad Khalil, both of whom joined my committee during the later stages of my work, were insightful and reliable readers, as well as being excellent resources. I would also like to thank Dr. Judy Pugh, whose contributions to this project helped give it shape. Our department chair, Dr. Jodie O’Gorman, has gone above and beyond in helping me with bureaucratic hurdles and in providing me with a sympathetic ear. My friends and colleagues at Michigan State University and elsewhere have kept me grounded, and provided me with advice, support, and comfort during the process of writing this dissertation. Mahum Shere and Sameera Durrani have been valuable sources of encouragement. Late-night phone calls with them always make my day brighter. My fellow graduate students have been in touch with me across oceans, continents, and multiple time zones, providing feedback on my writing and support through what often feels like a solitary engagement. I owe particular debts of gratitude to Dr. Charlotte Cable, Rowenn Kalman, Dr. Anna Jefferson, and Adrianne Daggett, who have been study-buddies, writing companions, vi and accountability-partners. My Pakistani mentors and colleagues also deserve a special mention, particularly Dr. Zafar Ishaq Ansari, whose encouragement and guidance during my research was invaluable, and Dr. Afshan Huma, whose insight into Pakistan often provided me with fresh angles of exploration. I would also like to acknowledge the efforts of my informants, who included me in their Qur’an circles and social gatherings, and put up with what seemed to them irrelevant (and irreverent) questions. Finally, I owe great debts of gratitude to my family. My parents were my first audience, listening to my thoughts during this project’s formative stages, and later reading my chapters through the difficult process of drafting and redrafting. My brother Talha’s hospitality through my toughest three month period of revisions is greatly appreciated, as is his use of games to distract me from my writing. My sister Zainab’s daily check-ins were the highlight of my mornings, and reminded me that there was life beyond my work. This dissertation would not have been possible without their love, guidance, and support. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................................x INTRODUCTION: OPENING NOTES........................................................................................................1 Theoretical Background: Gender, Religion, and Anthropology.......................................................5 The Islamic Revival..........................................................................................................................9 The Tablighi Jama’at.........................................................................................................13 The Al-Huda Welfare Trust...............................................................................................16 Fieldwork/Methods.........................................................................................................................18 Introduction to the Field and Pre-Dissertation Research...................................................20 Participant-Observation Research......................................................................................22 Interviews...........................................................................................................................24 General Values Survey......................................................................................................25 Structure of the Dissertation...........................................................................................................26 CHAPTER ONE. FROM SYMBOLS TO ACTIVISTS: THE HISTORY OF WOMEN”S MOBILIZATION IN PAKISTAN...............................................................................................................30 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................30 Women as Symbols: The Pakistan Movement...............................................................................32 Modern Pakistan.............................................................................................................................41