International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 32 | Issue 1 Article 9 1-1-2013 Shamanic Cosmology as an Evolutionary Neurocognitive Epistemology Michael Winkelman Arizona State University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.ciis.edu/ijts-transpersonalstudies Part of the Anthropology Commons, Philosophy Commons, Psychology Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Winkelman, M. (2013). Winkelman, M. (2013). Shamanic cosmology as an evolutionary neurocognitive epistemology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 32(1), 79–99.. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 32 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ ijts.2013.32.1.79 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License. This Special Topic Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals and Newsletters at Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Shamanic Cosmology as an Evolutionary Neurocognitive Epistemology Michael Winkelman Arizona State University—Retired Tempe, AZ, USA The biological foundation for a shamanic epistemology is indicated by the cross-cultural distribution of a shamanic cosmology derived from knowledge obtained during altered consciousness. These special forms of consciousness involve integrative brain conditions that access ancient ways of knowing, expressive systems which have evolutionary roots in the communicative and social processes involved in animal displays or rituals. These were augmented over the course of hominid evolution into expressive and mimetic activities that provided a basis for significant epistemological expansions of consciousness exemplified in shamanic out-of-body (OBE) experiences. These manifestations of consciousness involved new modes of self and processes of knowing, reflecting selection for expanded symbolic brain processes that enhanced psychological, cognitive integration and extra-personal cognition. Shamanic alterations of consciousness also contributed to experiences of personal spirit essences and encounters with extrapersonal spirit presences that reflected activation of innate brain operators involving self-structures and psyche. The evolution of the hominid capacity for knowing involved new understandings of nature (animism), mind (spirits), self (power animals) and others (gods) that were elicited by shamanic practices and expressed though a shamanistic ideology. These phenomena reflect activation of innate aspects of consciousness, illustrating features of shamanism as a neuroepistemology. Keywords: Shamanism, consciousness, neuroepistemology, evolutionary epistemology, entheogen liade (1964) characterized shamanism as a 2000, 2002, 2010a, 2010b; Winkelman & Baker, universally distributed practice involving use 2008) for inferring shamanism’s presence even deeper of ritual techniques to induce an alteration of in the human past. Ethnological analogies indicate Econsciousness (ecstasy) in order to enter into the spirit that shamanic activities were central features of the world. Long before his comparative research, there was dawn of culturally modern humans during the Upper/ a widespread recognition of strikingly similar practices Middle Paleolithic revolution at least 40,000 years ago of spiritual healers found cross-culturally and deep in and even deeper in the evolution of the Homo genus. human history (Flaherty, 1992). Cross-cultural research The centrality of shamanic practice to modern cognitive (Winkelman, 1986, 1992) verified this cross-cultural evolution is indicated in its correspondences to central distribution of these and other shamanic features, features of Middle/Upper Paleolithic cave art (Clottes which point to likely neuropsychological foundations. & Lewis-Williams, 1998; Lewis-Williams, 2002; Lewis- Basic features of shamanism still found universally Williams & Pearce, 2005; Whitley, 2009; Winkelman, in shamanistic healers include a ritual alteration of 2002, 2010a). consciousness to interact with spirit beings and powers Basic features of shamanism point to significant that provide information and resources, especially healing. epistemological factors, beginning with the alterations These ritually induced modifications of consciousness of consciousness conceptualized as special forms of involved the shaman experiencing a bodiless spirit travel knowing embodied in the shaman’s visionary and out-of- or soul journey that contemporary psychologists and body (OBE) experiences. These epistemological systems philosophers see as embodying fundamental properties of of consciousness have deeper roots in forms of knowing the self. related to the body and embodied in ritual, and apparently These cross-cultural patterns of behavior and provided collective dimensions of consciousness as belief characteristic of shamanism in the pre-modern conscience—“knowing with others.” These social world provide an ethnological analogy (Winkelman, foundations of shamanic knowing were expanded as a ShamanicInternational Cosmology Journal of as Transpersonal Epistemology Studies, 32(1), 2013,International pp. 79-99 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 79 hallmark of all religions. Witness the animistic systems The evolutionary foundations of shamanic of belief in spirits that populate the universe with human- natural epistemology have biological roots in three like entities. Spirits provide significant epistemological principal characteristics of shamans—alterations of expansions, embodied in the divinatory knowledge consciousness, community rituals, and spirit concepts. from significant others (spirits, gods) and symbolic These reflect specific aspects of epistemology or knowing representations of systems of meaning (cosmologies). related to visual representation, community reference This paper characterizes shamanism’s epistemology (i.e., conscience), and abstract symbols, respectively. within a neurophenomenological approach to consciousness. These universal aspects of shamanistic ideology are This illustrates shamanism’s epistemological models derived from intrinsic brain processes, which provide involve forms of consciousness mediated by ancient a foundation for a shamanic neurophenomenology brain structures. A particular feature of shamanic and neuroepistemology. Central behavioral elements consciousness involves integration across brain systems of shamanic rituals—singing and chanting, dancing, by slow (theta), highly coherent brain waves driven and imitation of desired goals—have biological origins by interactions between the paleomammalian brain in the structures underlying animal rituals as systems and R-complex, which are imposed on the frontal of group coordination and communication. These cortex producing interhemispheric integration. These primate enactive and vocal emotive expressive systems integrative physical features are responsible for many and their communicative and integrative functions features of shamanic experiences (wholeness, Oneness, were expanded in the evolution of shamanism, using comprehension, integration). Shamanic consciousness mimesis as a system for the expression of intentions and also emphasizes internal images manifested in body- the production of a shared culture. These ritual activities referenced perceptual images (i.e., visions and OBE produced alterations of consciousness and new forms of experiences) and development of the self with respect to the experience of self and other. These experiences of self the social “others,” including those provided by animals derived from the integration of innate cognitive modules and spirits understood within mythological systems or operators, providing processes for producing personal of interpretation (animal powers, spirit possession). and social identities based on animals (animal powers Shamanic Epistemology and Consciousness and totems) and new forms of consciousness. hamanic epistemological systems engage a special Visionary Experiences Sorder of consciousness, a mythic consciousness in Epistemological Perspective focused on altering consciousness and experiencing lterations of consciousness and their forms of spirit persons. This intersection of myth and mystical Aknowing must be at the core of the appraisal consciousness in ethnoepistemological systems appears of ethnoepistemological systems for several reasons. to place them in great divergence from scientific Consciousness and epistemology are inescapably epistemology. Can they be reconciled; can post-modern intertwined concepts. Epistemology is concerned with philosophy of knowledge find a common ground with the nature of knowing and the processes that produce ethnoepistemologies? knowing. Etymological analysis (Winkelman, 2004) This paper proposes a rapprochement between illustrates that consciousness is, in essence, concerned scientific epistemology and ethnoepistemologies through with the nature of knowing (e.g., knowing by making neurophenomenological perspectives that explain shamanic distinctions, knowing with). There are many different universals by linking them to homologies with functions forms of consciousness and knowing. Epistemological of structural systems and functions of the brain. The perspectives characterize consciousness as produced neurophenomenological approaches, and by extension by systems of structures and relations mediating neuroepistemological