Table of Contents Preface .......................................................................................... i Abbreviations ............................................................................ iii References .................................................................................. iv 1. Introduction 1.1. Area and Its Speakers ......................................................... 1 1.2. Dialects and Classification ................................................. 1 1.3. Hindi - Urdu ....................................................................... 2 1.4. Linguistic Characteristics ................................................... 4 1.5. Status .................................................................................. 4 1.6. Grammars in Hindi ............................................................ 7 2. Phonology 2.1. Phonological Units (Segmental) ...................................... 11 2.1.1. Distinctive Segments .................................................. 11 Vowels ................................................................................ 11 Consonants .......................................................................... 12 2.1.2. Description of Phonemes ............................................ 12 2.1.2.1. Vowels ................................................................... 12 2.1.2.2. Consonants ............................................................. 14 2.1.2.3. Distribution of Phonemes and Allophones ............ 19 2.2. Phonotactics ..................................................................... 20 2.2.1. Vowel Sequences ........................................................ 20 2.2.2. Consonant Clusters ..................................................... 20 2.2.2.1. Word-initial Cosonant Clusters .............................. 20 2.2.2.2. Word-medial Consonant Clusters .......................... 21 2.2.2.3. Word-final Consonant Clusters .............................. 23 2.2.3. Syllable Structure ........................................................ 24 2.3. Supersegmental Features ................................................. 25 2.3.1. Nasalization ................................................................. 25 2.3.2. Length ......................................................................... 26 2.3.3. Stress ........................................................................... 26 2.3.4. Intonation .................................................................... 27 2.3.5. Juncture ....................................................................... 29 2.4. Morphophonemics ........................................................... 30 2.4.1. Loss of Phoneme ......................................................... 30 2.4.2. Addition of Phoneme .................................................. 30 2.4.3. Alternations ................................................................. 31 3. Morphology 3.1. Nouns ............................................................................... 33 3.1.1. Noun Inflection ........................................................... 33 3.1.1.1. Gender .................................................................... 33 3.1.1.2. Number .................................................................. 35 3.1.1.3. Case ........................................................................ 36 3.1.2. Postpositions ............................................................... 37 3.1.2.1. The Postposition nao ne ............................................. 37 3.1.2.2. The Postposition kao ko ............................................ 41 3.1.2.3. The Postposition sao se ............................................. 47 3.1.2.4. The Postposition maoM mẽ ............................................ 52 3.1.2.5. The Postposition pr par .......................................... 53 3.1.2.6. The Postposition ka ka ............................................ 55 3.1.2.7. Compound Postpositions........................................ 57 3.1.3. Noun Derivation .......................................................... 68 3.1.3.1. Nouns from Nouns ................................................. 68 3.1.3.2. Nouns from Adjectives .......................................... 70 3.1.3.3. Nouns from Verbs .................................................. 71 3.1.4. Noun Compounds ....................................................... 72 3.1.4.1. Noun-Noun Compounds ........................................ 73 3.1.4.2. Copulative Compounds .......................................... 73 3.1.4.3. Reduplicated Compounds ...................................... 73 3.1.4.4. Partially Duplicated Compounds ........................... 73 3.1.4.5. Superordinate Compounds ..................................... 74 3.1.4.6. Complex Compounds ............................................. 74 3.1.4.7. Hybrid Compounds ................................................ 74 3.1.4.8. Adjective-Noun Compounds .................................. 74 3.1.4.9. Modifier-Noun Compounds ................................... 75 3.2. Pronouns .......................................................................... 75 3.2.1. Personal Pronouns ....................................................... 75 3.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................. 77 3.2.3. Relative Pronouns ....................................................... 77 3.2.4. Reflexive Pronouns ..................................................... 77 3.2.5. Interrogative Pronouns ................................................ 78 3.2.6. Indefinite Pronouns ..................................................... 79 3.2.7. Oblique Forms of Pronouns ........................................ 79 3.2.8. Compound Pronouns ................................................... 80 3.3. Adjectives ........................................................................ 81 3.3.1. Inflected ...................................................................... 82 3.3.2. Uninflected .................................................................. 82 3.3.3. Types of Adjectives .................................................... 82 3.3.4. Degree of Adjectives ................................................... 84 3.3.5. Derivation of Adjectives ............................................. 85 3.3.6. Numerals ..................................................................... 88 3.3.6.1. Cardinals ................................................................ 88 3.3.6.2. Ordinals .................................................................. 90 3.3.6.3. Fractions ................................................................. 91 3.3.6.4. Multiplicatives ....................................................... 92 3.3.6.5. Approximation ....................................................... 92 3.3.6.6. Aggregation ............................................................ 93 3.4. Verbs ................................................................................ 93 3.4.1. The Verb hona: ........................................................... 93 3.4.2. Main Verbs .................................................................. 95 3.4.2.1. Intransitive Verbs ................................................... 95 3.4.2.2. Transitive Verbs ..................................................... 96 3.4.2.3. Ditransitive Verbs .................................................. 98 3.4.2.4. Causative Verbs ..................................................... 98 3.4.2.5. Dative Verbs ........................................................ 100 3.4.2.6. Conjunct Verbs .................................................... 102 3.4.2.7. Compound Verbs ................................................. 103 3.4.3. Tense ......................................................................... 105 3.4.4. Aspect ....................................................................... 107 3.4.4.1. Habitual Aspect .................................................... 107 3.4.4.2. Progressive Aspect ............................................... 111 3.4.4.3. Perfective Aspect ................................................. 113 3.4.5. Mood ......................................................................... 116 3.4.5.1. Indicative Mood ................................................... 116 3.4.5.2. Imperative Mood .................................................. 116 3.4.5.3. Subjuntive Mood .................................................. 119 3.4.6. Voice ......................................................................... 121 3.4.7. Non-finite Verb Forms .............................................. 122 3.4.7.1. Infinitives ............................................................. 122 3.4.7.2. Participles ............................................................. 124 3.4.7.2.1. Imperfective Participles .................................. 125 3.4.7.2.2. Perfective Participles ....................................... 126 3.4.7.2.3. Conjunctive Participles ................................... 128 3.5. Adverbs .......................................................................... 129 3.5.1. Types of Adverbs ...................................................... 130 3.5.2. Expressions of Time ................................................. 133 3.5.2.1. General Time Expressions ................................... 133 3.5.2.2. Time of Day ......................................................... 133 3.5.2.3. Period