The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education EXPLORING THE AFRICAN SONGO GAME AND HOW GAMEPLAY ENHANCES MULTIPLE LITERACIES AMONG ADULT PLAYERS IN CAMEROON AND THE UNITED STATES A Dissertation in Learning Design and Technology and Comparative International Education by Rebecca Y. Bayeck 2019 Rebecca Y. Bayeck Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2019 ii The dissertation of Rebecca Y. Bayeck was reviewed and approved* by the following: Gabriela T. Richard Assistant Professor of Learning, Design and Technology Dissertation Advisor Co-Chair of Committee Nicole S. Webster Associate Professor of Youth and International Development and Director of Burkina Faso 2iE-PSU Collaboration Co-Chair of Committee Ty Hollett Assistant Professor of Learning, Design, and Technology Sinfree B. Makoni Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and African Studies Susan Land Head of Graduate Program *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This microethnographic study cross-culturally explored the literacies that Songo board game players in Yaoundé, Cameroon, and New York City engaged in during gameplay. The theoretical framework included situated learning, legitimate peripheral participation, and a multiliteracies view of literacy. A combination of thematic analysis and Erickson’s (2006) approach to interaction analysis served as the analytic and interpretative lens. This study presents the nuances, similarities, and differences in the literacy practices of Songo board game players in Yaoundé, Cameroon, and New York City. The findings indicate that cultural contexts and players’ identity (e.g., cultural identity) shaped the literacy practices in which participants engage. In addition, the literacies players exhibited and developed in the game environment were useful beyond the game environment. Furthermore, cultural contexts informed the structure of both gaming communities, while space/place influenced interactions among participants, game aesthetics, and knowledge about the game. This research project contributes to the literature on games and literacies, to the field of the learning sciences, and to the burgeoning research on board games and learning. It demonstrates that Songo board gameplay facilitates a variety of literacies through the cross- cultural exploration of interactions that take place in the gameplay of an African board game. The study also highlights the intersection of learning, identity, and gameplay, and points to the situatedness of literacies shaped by the cultural contexts. Furthermore, the study presents a nuanced view of the concept of community of practice and demonstrates how space/place, cultural contexts, and identity interact to shape literacies. The findings of this study run counter to perceptions of African games such as Songo as being only objects of art useful to preserve iv culture. The study shows the significance of these games to research on literacy and learning, and to the design of environments that support learning. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix PREFACE ....................................................................................................................................... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER ONE Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 1 Diffusion of Songo-like Games ................................................................................................ 4 Purpose Statement ................................................................................................................... 10 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 11 Rationale for Cross-cultural Research .................................................................................... 12 Research Sites ......................................................................................................................... 13 The Case of New York City.............................................................................................. 13 The Case of Yaoundé, Cameroon ..................................................................................... 14 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 17 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 18 Sociocultural Theory ......................................................................................................... 18 Situated Learning Theory ................................................................................................. 20 Legitimate Peripheral Participation .................................................................................. 21 Study Limitations .................................................................................................................... 22 Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................................... 23 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER TWO Literature Review ............................................................................................ 25 Games and Learning ............................................................................................................... 25 Video Games and Learning .................................................................................................... 27 Video Games as Designed Learning Experience .............................................................. 27 Video Games as 21st Century Learning Spaces ............................................................... 28 Video Games and Literacies ............................................................................................. 30 Board Games and Learning .................................................................................................... 33 Learning in the Chess Board Game .................................................................................. 34 Learning in Board Games Other Than Chess ................................................................... 35 Board Games Designed for Content Learning .................................................................. 37 Board Games and Computational Thinking ..................................................................... 39 Board Games as Space for Engaging in Social Practices ................................................. 41 Board Games as Spaces for Multiple Practices ................................................................ 43 African Board Games and Learning ....................................................................................... 45 African Board Games as Cultural Practices of Mathematics ............................................ 46 Learning in Oware Game .................................................................................................. 48 Learning and the Game of Songo ...................................................................................... 50 Overview of Songo Rules ................................................................................................. 53 Defining Space and Place ................................................................................................. 56 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 59 vi CHAPTER THREE Research Design .......................................................................................... 61 Rationale for Microethnography ............................................................................................. 62 Context of the Study ............................................................................................................... 64 New York City Cultural Context ...................................................................................... 65 Yaoundé, Cameroon, Cultural Context ............................................................................. 65 Research Sites ................................................................................................................... 66 Gaining Access and Recruitment Process............................................................................... 68 Sampling Strategy ............................................................................................................. 73 Participants in the Study ......................................................................................................... 73 Data Collection 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