Department of Archaeology and Ancient History Multiple Expressions of the Wheel Cross Motif in South Scandinavian Rock Carvings: Case studies of Tanum and Enköping in Sweden Yani Ma MA thesis 45 credits in Archaeology Spring term 2020 Supervisor: Ing-Marie Back Danielsson Campus Engelska parken Abstract Ma, Y. 2020. Multiple expressions of the wheel cross motif in South Scandinavian rock carvings: case studies of Tanum and Enköping in Sweden. Scandinavian rock carvings can be described as the special rock art languages that were written by prehistoric humans to express their ideas, beliefs and thoughts. Each piece of figurative motif language might tell a prehistoric story about for instance domestic life, social practice, ritual or cosmology. Among different motifs such as ship, human and animal, the wheel cross has received comparatively less attention. The wheel cross has many different variations, where the motif’s ambiguity and possible changing relations to other motifs as well as its relation to the rock itself and landscape over time, have not been studied in greater detail. To fill this gap, this work is aimed at investigating the multiple expressions and possible meanings of the wheel cross motif over time in South Scandinavian rock carvings. Two case study areas with rich rock carvings, Tanum and Enköping, located in the southwest and southeast of Sweden, respectively, are selected. The rock carving materials where the wheel cross motif is present are processed by chorological and chronological studies. A simple and general method is proposed to reconstruct the prehistoric shoreline of Scandinavia. The chronology of the wheel cross motif is analysed with stylistic and shoreline dating methods. The results of the chronological study are then analysed in a cultural-historical- geographical context using an intercontextual interpretation and comparative analysis method. It is suggested that the various visual expressions of the wheel cross, such as the wheel of a wagon or as the shield covering a human torso, have unique symbolic meanings beyond their practical and physical counterparts. With a cosmological meaning as the sun, and a religious meaning as a god, the wheel cross becomes the symbol of moving, fertility, power and life, which has been integrated into not only the rituals but also the domestic life of South Scandinavian society. Although the wheel cross motif is limited in number, its various forms, relating to other motifs, are argued to reflect how the Bronze Age society of Scandinavia imported and developed ideas, artefacts, stories, etc., from foreign cultures in Continental Europe and the Mediterranean area. Like the spoke physically supporting the cart, the wheel cross acts as the lifeline that closely links the landscape, ritual, artefact, human, and other materialities, to mentally support the South Scandinavian society. Keywords: Rock carvings, Southern Scandinavia, wheel cross, intercontextual, materiality, lifeline, comparative analysis, Tanum, Enköping Cover image: photo of Tanum 12 panel, adapted from Swedish Rock Art Research Archives. Master thesis in Archaeology, 45 hp. Supervisor: Ing-Marie Back Danielsson. Defended and approved 2020-06-15. © Yani Ma Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box 626, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden ii Abstrakt Ma, Y. 2020. Hjulkorsets mångtydigheter i Södra Skandinaviens hällristningar: fallstudier av Tanum och Enköping i Sverige. Skandinaviens hällristningar kan på ett sätt beskrivas som ett slags språk, som ristats i berg av förhistoriska människor för att uttrycka till exempel idéer, social praxis, övertygelser och tankar. Varje figurativt motivspråk kan sägas framföra en förhistorisk berättelse om exempelvis det vardagliga livet, ritualer och/eller kosmologier. Bland olika motiv som skepp, människor och djur har det motiv som oftast kallas hjulkors jämförelsevis fått mindre uppmärksamhet. Hjulkorset finns i flera olika utföranden, och just motivets flertydighet i kombination med en studie av motivets relation till andra motiv, själva berghällarna samt plats i landskapet, har inte studerats detaljerat i någon större utsträckning. För att råda bot på denna kunskapsbrist syftar detta arbete till att undersöka motivets flerfaldiga uttryckssätt och möjliga betydelser i södra Skandinavien. För syftet har två fallstudieområden valts i Sverige, vilka bägge har rikligt med hällristningar. Den ena området är Tanum, beläget i sydvästra delen av Sydskandinavien, och Enköping, beläget i dess sydöstra del. Hällristningslokaler där hjulkors förekommer analyseras på flera sätt. En korologisk och kronologisk görs. En enkel och allmängiltig metod utvecklas vidare för att rekonstruera Skandinaviens förhistoriska strandlinjer. Kronologin för hjulkors utförs bland annat utifrån en stilistisk metod och en strandlinjedateringsmetod. Resultaten från den kronologiska studien analyseras sedan i ett kulturhistoriskt- geografiskt sammanhang med användande av en interkontextuell tolkningsmetod och en jämförande analysmetod. Det föreslås att de olika visuella uttryck i vilka hjulkors förekom, såsom exempelvis i form av vagnshjulet, eller i form av en sköld som täcker en mänsklig överkropp eller torso, har unika symboliska betydelser, utöver sina praktiska och fysiska motsvarigheter. Med en kosmologisk betydelse som solen och en religiös betydelse som gud, blir hjulkors-motivet en möjlig synonym för rörelse, fruktbarhet, makt och liv. Som sådan har den inte bara integrerats i ritualerna utan också i det vardagliga livet i de sydskandinaviska samhällena. Även om hjulkorsen är begränsade i antal, kan deras olika former och relation till andra motiv visa aspekter av hur bronsåldersamhället i Skandinavien importerade och utvecklade idéer, artefakter, berättelser och annat från främmande kulturer i Kontinentaleuropa och Medelhavsområdet. Liksom korset i betydelsen ekrar fysiskt stödjer ett vagnshjul fungerar hjulkorset även som en typ av livslinje som kopplade samman en mängd relationella företeelser, som var nödvändiga för det sydskandinaviska samhällets funktion på en mängd nivåer, exempelvis landskapet, ritualerna, artefakterna, människorna och förstås alla dessas samskapande och samverkande materialiteter. Nyckelord: Hällristningar, södra Skandinavien, hjulkors, interkontextuell, materialitet, livslinje, jämförande analys, Tanum, Enköping iii Acknowledgements I still remember my original motivation of applying for the master study, which was to further expand my archaeological knowledge, strengthen my scientific research ability and improve my English skills. When choosing a topic for the thesis, some of my friends suggested that I extend my bachelor’s thesis on the blue and white porcelain of the Ming Dynasty of China. I knew that would be a much easier way to go not only because I was familiar with that topic but also because most literature was published in my mother tongue. However, I decided to jump out of my comfort zone. As I came to Sweden for study, why not chose a local archaeological topic? Fortunately, I found my supervisor, Ing-Marie Back Danielsson, who encouraged me to take this challenge, and then guided me in the study and research. This thesis would never be completed without her constant help. I am also grateful for having the opportunity to study at the Uppsala University and in Sweden, an amazing university in a beautiful country. Uppsala University provides me not only a great platform to study but also gives me chances to explore more based on my own interests with an individual study plan. Thanks to all the courses, field work and internship, the journey of master study is meaningful and memorable. Finally, I give my deep and sincere gratitude to my family for their continuous and unparalleled love and support. Yani Ma 2020-05-01 iv Abbreviations LN Late Neolithic, 2350–1700 BC BA Bronze Age (Nordic), 1700–500 BC EBA Early Bronze Age, 1700–1100 BC Period I 1700–1500 BC Period II 1500–1300 BC Period III 1300–1100 BC LBA Late Bronze Age, 1100–500 BC Period IV 1100–900 BC Period V 900–700 BC Period VI 700–500 BC PRIA Pre-Roman Iron Age, 500–1 BC SHFA1 Swedish Rock Art Research Archives FMIS2 Swedish National Heritage Board’s Archaeological Sites and Monuments Database and Associated Applications RAÄ Swedish National Heritage Board’s Archaeological Sites and Monuments Register GIS Geographic Information System CRS Coordinates Reference System GET3 Geodata Extraction Tool BP Before Present (AD 2000) m.a.s.l. Meters Above (present) Sea Level LUV Land Uplift Velocity 1 http://www.shfa.se/ 2 http://www.raa.se/tag/fmis/ 3 http://maps.slu.se/get v Terminology Rock carving A prehistoric image created by removing part of a rock surface through carving, also named as rock engraving or petroglyph (Swedish: Hällristning). Motif A figure created on the rock that has symbolic significance. There are many different kinds of rock carving motifs, such as ship, human, animal, circle and so on. When referring to a motif, for instance a ship motif, it is common to just use ship instead of ship motif. Wheel cross A motif generally consisting of an equilateral cross inside a circle ( ). However, it has many variations with different meanings and does not necessarily represent a wheel. Depending on the context, it is also named as sun cross, sun wheel or ring cross. Lifeline Depending on the context, in the thesis it means either the connecting lines in a closed motif that indicate the structure for moving, or the analytical tool for studying the connections between