Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University Neuroscience Institute Dissertations Neuroscience Institute 4-30-2018 Differences in Cognitive Flexibility Within the Primate Lineage and Across Human Cultures: When Learned Strategies Block Better Alternatives Sarah M. Pope Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/neurosci_diss Recommended Citation Pope, Sarah M., "Differences in Cognitive Flexibility Within the Primate Lineage and Across Human Cultures: When Learned Strategies Block Better Alternatives." Dissertation, Georgia State University, 2018. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/neurosci_diss/33 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Neuroscience Institute at ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Neuroscience Institute Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY WITHIN THE PRIMATE LINEAGE AND ACROSS HUMAN CULTURES: WHEN LEARNED STRATEGIES BLOCK BETTER ALTERNATIVES by SARAH MICHELLE POPE Under the Direction of William D. Hopkins, PhD ABSTRACT By applying learned rules, humans are able to accurately solve many problems with minimal cognitive effort; yet, this sort of habit-based problem solving may readily foster a type of cognitive inflexibility termed ‘cognitive set’. Cognitive set occurs when an alternative – even more efficient – strategy is masked by a known, familiar solution. In this research, I explored how cognitive set differs between primate species and across human cultures, using a nonverbal computerized ‘LS-DS’ task, which measures subjects’ ability to depart from a three-step, learned strategy (LS) in order to adopt a more efficient, one-step, direct strategy (DS or ‘the shortcut’). First, I compared baboons’, chimpanzees’, and humans’ abilities to break cognitive set and found that all baboon and chimpanzee subjects used the DS shortcut when it became available; yet, humans exhibited a remarkable preference for the LS. Next, in an effort to elucidate how cognitive set occludes alternative strategies, I tracked human participants’ eye movements to identify whether better solutions are a) visually overlooked or b) seen but disregarded. Although human subjects saw the shortcut, they did not use it until their conceptualization of the problem constraints were altered. Lastly, to further distinguish between perceptual and conceptual influences on cognitive set, I compared shortcut-use between Westerners and the semi-nomadic Himba of northern Namibia. This study found that susceptibility to cognitive set varied across human cultures and presented further evidence that problem conceptualization, and not perceptual processing, influences individuals’ ability to break set and use the alternative. Overall, this research provides a novel comparison of cognitive flexibility within the primate lineage and across human cultures. The implications for set-promoting influences, including the potentially mechanizing problem-solving methods typical of Western education, are discussed. INDEX WORDS: Cognitive flexibility, Evolution, Cross-cultural, Perception, Primates DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY WITHIN THE PRIMATE LINEAGE AND ACROSS HUMAN CULTURES: WHEN LEARNED STRATEGIES BLOCK BETTER ALTERNATIVES by SARAH MICHELLE POPE A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University 2018 Copyright by Sarah Michelle Pope 2018 DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY WITHIN THE PRIMATE LINEAGE AND ACROSS HUMAN CULTURES: WHEN LEARNED STRATEGIES BLOCK BETTER ALTERNATIVES by SARAH MICHELLE POPE Committee Chair: William Hopkins Committee: Joël Fagot Adrien Meguerditchian David Washburn Electronic Version Approved: Office of Graduate Studies College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University May 2018 iv DEDICATION To my mother, Sandra W. Doncaster, who most fervently supported my monkey scientist dreams. Thank you for teaching me, for letting me learn the hard way sometimes, for holding my hand, and for challenging me to explore. You are immeasurably missed. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have contributed to the synthesis of this research. I cannot hope to adequately thank them all on a single page, but here goes. To Bill Hopkins, who graciously provided me with the rare opportunity and resources to research what interested me most. For that, I am eternally grateful. Thank you for all of your encouragement, critiques, advice, and support. To Joël Fagot, who welcomed me into his lab and truly shaped my research path. Thank you for lending your knowledge, time, and resources to my research pursuits. The learning environment, which you provided, was truly inspirational. To Adrien Meguerditchian, who made this research and my cotutelle possible. Thank you for always having an idea to discuss with me. Thank you for challenging me to think critically and for your ever-enthusiastic feedback, it provided encouragement when I needed it most. Also, thank you for not being terribly angry when I got a speeding ticket in Switzerland with your car. Additionally, I want to thank Lindsay Mahovetz for all the time she spent helping to debug the program and generally for being the kindest person I know. To Michelle Autrey, thank you for the countless hours collecting data / avoiding projectile chimp poo with me. To each of the inspiring people who have contributed to this project, including: David Washburn, Sarah Davis, Arianne Ribeiro, Nadia deKoekkoek, thank you. Lastly, to my family, but especially Michael Pope, Jesse and Philip Coffey, and Philip Doncaster, your enormous contributions over the years are what have made this possible. I will never be able to fully express my gratitude. Thanks for putting up with me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ V LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... XIII LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. XIV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. XVI 1 INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY IN PRIMATES AND ACROSS HUMAN CULTURES .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction to Cognitive Flexibility ............................................................... 1 1.1.1 Adaptive Significance of Flexible Behavior ................................................. 1 1.1.2 Abstract Problem Solving .............................................................................. 3 1.2 Measuring Cognitive Flexibility ...................................................................... 4 1.2.1 Cognitive Flexibility as a Multifaceted Construct ........................................ 4 1.2.2 Forced Switch Paradigms .............................................................................. 5 1.2.3 Optional Switch Paradigms ........................................................................... 7 1.3 Cognitive Set: When Sufficiency Blocks Efficienc ......................................... 8 1.3.1 What is Cognitive Set? ................................................................................... 8 1.3.2 The Up-Side of Inefficiency ......................................................................... 10 1.4 The Evolution of Cognitive Flexibility .......................................................... 11 1.4.1 The Origins of Human Cognitive Flexibility .............................................. 11 1.4.2 Cognitive Flexibility in Monkeys ................................................................. 12 vii 1.4.3 Cognitive Flexibility in Apes........................................................................ 15 1.4.4 Evolutionary Implications ........................................................................... 21 1.5 Cross-Cultural Influences on Cognitive Flexibility ..................................... 22 1.5.1 Humans and Rule-Use ................................................................................. 23 1.5.2 Purported Universality of Cognition ........................................................... 24 1.5.3 Westerners’ Global Perceptual Bias............................................................ 25 1.5.4 Cross-Cultural Differences in Perceptual Biases ....................................... 25 1.5.5 Cross Cultural Differences in Problem Conceptualization ........................ 27 1.5.6 Impact of Cultural Differences on Problem Solving .................................. 28 1.6 Current Research Aims and General Approach.......................................... 31 1.6.1 Specific Aims ................................................................................................ 31 1.6.2 General Approach ........................................................................................ 32 1.6.3 Overview of Research Chapters ................................................................... 34 1.6.4 Overarching Hypotheses .............................................................................. 34 1.6.5 Summary and Significance .........................................................................