ATLANTIC CROSSINGS: RACE, GENDER, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF FAMILIES IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY LA ROCHELLE By Jennifer L. Palmer A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History and Women’s Studies) in The University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Professor Dena Goodman, Chair Professor Susan L. Siegfried Associate Professor Joshua H. Cole Associate Professor Martha S. Jones © Jennifer L. Palmer 2008 Dedication For Amy… still shining. ii Acknowledgements I have accrued many debts on my intellectual journey to eighteenth-century La Rochelle. This project has received funding support from a number of institutions. The Council for European Studies and the University of Michigan International Institute funded pre-dissertation research. A Bourse Châteaubriand enabled me to spend a year in the archives in La Rochelle. The Michigan Society of Fellows and the Michigan Institute for the Humanities provided support, invaluable critique, and intellectual community while I wrote the dissertation. The Women’s Studies Department at the University of Michigan offered summer support, funding for conferences, and encouragement throughout this process, and the History Department offered fellowship and teaching support. I thank both departments for the diverse academic communities they fostered. I also appreciate the willingness of archivists to share their expertise. In France, archivists at the Archives départementales de la Charente Maritime and the Archives municipales de La Rochelle made every effort to help me in what occasionally seemed a futile search for people of color in the eighteenth century. The Musée du Nouveau Monde kindly opened its collection to me, and gave me permission to reproduce images from it. While in La Rochelle, I was lucky to make the acquaintance of Mickaël Augeron. His knowledge of La Rochelle and its archives helped to make my stay extremely productive. The archivists at the Clements Library iii at the University of Michigan urged me to consider the importance of maps, and gave me permission to reproduce images from their collection. My largest debt is to the faculty and graduate students at the University of Michigan. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dena Goodman, who has constantly urged me to strive, creatively, for excellence, and to sharply question how understandings and experiences of gender shaped the lives of the people who populate “my” eighteenth century. Susan Siegfried has opened up the rich and exciting world of the visual, and has been unflagging in her support of my efforts to engage in interdisciplinary analysis. Joshua Cole has helped me to understand the excitement of history, and has shown me the importance of considering both colonies and metropole. Martha Jones has modeled how to think about race critically in an Atlantic context, and has taught me some invaluable lessons on combining intellectual rigor with personal grace. Jean Hébrard first suggested to me the importance of considering circulation between France and its Caribbean colonies, and also introduced me to the rich and wonderful world of documents. Rebecca Scott encouraged me to think about slavery and the law. Regina Morantz-Sanchez provided support, encouragement, advice, and imparted to me her own love of women’s history. Sue Peabody’s work was the initial inspiration for my own, and offered her support and encouragement for my project. I would not have been able to complete this project without the advice and encouragement of these mentors and role models, and I offer them my heartfelt thanks. My graduate student colleagues at the University of Michigan also have provided unflagging personal and professional support. I particularly thank Katie iv Cangany, Tamar Carroll, Saskia Coenen, and Robert Kruckeberg, all of whom read and provided feedback on portions of this project. Our weekly “Supper Club” was an essential source of encouragement. Suzi Linsley and the Atlantic Studies group also offered valuable comments and an interdisciplinary intellectual community. Friends and family both within and beyond academic circles have provided endless support and encouragement. I particularly thank Elizabeth Crocker, Jennifer Morgan Gray, Ann St. Claire, Catherine and George Carrignan, and Joan Knoertzer. C.T., my cat, has been my constant companion throughout this process. My parents, Hugh Palmer, Mary Palmer, Liz Karl, and Rick Petterson, have all supported me through the ups and downs of beginning an academic career. I particularly thank Mom and Dad for being my examples and inspiration, for encouraging my interests and far-flung intellectual curiosity, and for believing in me and my project(s) throughout. Finally, I thank my partner David Lee, who now knows more about slavery, race, and gender in eighteenth-century France than most people can ever hope to know. From archival updates to bibliographic editing he has been by my side, and I look forward to taking the next step of life’s exciting journey together. v Table of Contents Dedication .................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................iii List of Figures...........................................................................................................viii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. x Abstract....................................................................................................................... xi Introduction................................................................................................................. 1 La Rochelle, Protestantism, and Trade ..................................................................... 6 La Rochelle and Slavery ......................................................................................... 11 Historiography and Methodology........................................................................... 18 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 1: Imagining Colonialism and Race: Viewing Saint-Domingue from the Metropole................................................................................................................... 32 Introduction............................................................................................................. 32 Vernet’s Ports: Establishing Conventions of Port Painting .................................... 34 The Unconventional Career of Louis-Nicolas Van Blarenberghe.......................... 45 Surveying and Territorial Conquest........................................................................ 48 Travelers’ Accounts of Saint-Domingue: Sugar, Indigo, and Slavery ................... 52 Representing Ships and the Colonies...................................................................... 61 Representing Slavery .............................................................................................. 66 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 75 Chapter 2: Constructing a Discourse of Race, Slavery, and Gender in France: The Power of Portraiture ......................................................................................... 86 Introduction............................................................................................................. 86 Race, Blood, and Paint: Blacks in the French Court............................................... 92 Portraits: A Legacy of Power................................................................................ 103 Portraits, Allegories, and Power ........................................................................... 107 Race, Gender, and the Harem ............................................................................... 117 The Painted Legacy of Black and White .............................................................. 125 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 131 Chapter 3: Journeys, Contracts, and the Family................................................. 144 Introduction: Men’s Journeys and Women’s Contracts........................................ 144 Marriage and Inheritance in Customary Laws and Contracts............................... 148 Balancing Common Law and Contracts ............................................................... 159 vi Powers of Attorney ............................................................................................... 165 Slavery and Contracts ........................................................................................... 174 Illegitimacy and Inheritance ................................................................................. 186 The Fleuriau Family: Women of Color and their Wills........................................ 195 Marie-Jeanne Mandron Fleuriau’s Last Will and Testament ............................... 204 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 208 Chapter 4: Slaves and Owners, From Saint-Domingue to La Rochelle............. 211 Introduction..........................................................................................................