Smith ScholarWorks Theses, Dissertations, and Projects 2008 The strength of Muslim American couples in the face of heightened discrimination from September 11th and the Iraq War Brianne Goodman Smith College Brianne Goodman Carter Brianne Goodman Carter Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.smith.edu/theses Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Goodman, Brianne; Goodman Carter, Brianne; and Carter, Brianne Goodman, "The strength of Muslim American couples in the face of heightened discrimination from September 11th and the Iraq War" (2008). Masters Thesis, Smith College, Northampton, MA. https://scholarworks.smith.edu/theses/442 This Masters Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in Theses, Dissertations, and Projects by an authorized administrator of Smith ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Brianne Goodman Carter The Strength of Muslim American Couples in the Face of Heightened Discrimination from September 11th and The Iraq War ABSTRACT This exploratory study examined how Muslim American couples are psychologically and relationally impacted by heightened discrimination in the wake of September 11th and The Iraq War. Utilizing interviews with six Muslim American couples who have been married for at least six years (through September 11th and The Iraq War), the study identified that religious discrimination against Muslim Americans is experienced as pervasive and endemic—existing at multiple levels: attitudinal, interpersonal, structural, institutional, and systemic. The study found that in response to (rather than in spite of) religious discrimination, Muslim American couples exhibit increased resiliency and strength through the tenets of their faith (particularly, the primacy placed on marital union), their shared faith practice, and the resource of their religious communities. The study concluded that the majority of couples do not view religious discrimination as having amplified due to September 11th and The Iraq War; instead, couples believed these events surfaced underlying, pre-existing anti-Muslim sentiment. As such, the study determined that, due to this surfacing, couples found a division within their relationship along gender lines—women who wear Islamic head-covering (hijab) are more visibly Muslim, thereby their experience of discrimination is ten-fold that of their male counterparts. The results of this study have several implications for multicultural counseling and social work practice with Muslim Americans. This study informs social work practitioners of how to recognize and foster the strengths, coping mechanisms and faith integration of Muslim Americans as they respond to the negative affects of their present day sociopolitical environment. THE STRENGTH OF MUSLIM AMERICAN COUPLES IN THE FACE OF HEIGHTENED DISCRIMINATION FROM SEPTEMBER 11TH AND THE IRAQ WAR A project based upon an independent investigation, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Work. Brianne Goodman Carter Smith College Smith School for Social Work Northampton, Massachusetts 01063 2008 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been accomplished without the assistance of many people whose contributions are gratefully acknowledged. Firstly, I am deeply thankful to my thesis advisor, Dean Carolyn Jacobs, for her insight, feedback, and reassurance. I am also endlessly thankful to my longstanding friend, mentor, and advisor, Omid Safi, for the inspiration to write this thesis. Thank you to all of the wonderful participants who kindly volunteered to contribute to this study. I am deeply honored to have been able to document and impart your voices, your experiences, and your knowledge. Thank you to my family and friends for your advice and affirmations. Thank you to my Smith yonnies who have been lovingly and tirelessly by my side during the creation of this thesis. Thank you especially to Nick Carter for your love, support, encouragement and good nature. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ iv CHAPTERS I INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1 II LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................... 4 III METHODOLOGY............................................................................................... 58 IV FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 70 V DISCUSSION....................................................................................................... 125 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 143 APPENDICES Appendix A: Informed Consent Form.. ....................................................................... 150 Appendix B: Recruitment Letter.................................................................................. 152 Appendix C: Interview Guide...................................................................................... 153 Appendix D: Referral Sources ..................................................................................... 155 Appendix D: Human Subject Review Approval Letter ............................................... 157 Appendix E: Alumni Association Thesis Grant Letter................................................ 158 iii LIST OF TABLES 1. Demographic Data................................................................................................ 73 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In the contemporary sociopolitical climate of elevated anti-Muslim rhetoric and attitude, Muslim Americans are, more than ever before, at extreme risk. In response, the social work field is obligated to have an understanding of the larger, historical, and prevailing forces of oppression against Muslims in America as well as the internal dimensions, strengths and struggles of the current Muslim American population. Therefore, this study is focused on Muslim American couples as a lens into how Muslim Americans are psychologically and relationally impacted by heightened discrimination in the wake of September 11th and The Iraq War. A major objective of this study is to gather and disseminate information about the particular strengths employed by Muslim American couples as they negotiate their relationship around the ill effects of endemic and escalating religious discrimination. Contemporary research (Gushue, Greenan, & Brazaitis, 2005) on couples counseling has included a consideration of how interracial, multicultural or inter-religious dynamics in American society factor into the inner workings of a relationship. However, researchers had yet to look at how the sheer flood of inter-religious contempt and discrimination towards Muslims, resulting from September 11th and The Iraq War, deeply affects and challenges Muslim American couples. Subject to discrimination at all levels—attitudinal, interpersonal, structural, institutional, and systemic—Muslim 1 American couples are pressured to “act American,” prove loyalty and maintain a non- threatening, assimilated façade. Inevitably, these external pressures impact the internal psychological and relational workings of a relationship. As such, this study was designed to assess the internal dynamics of coupleship as shaped by external sociopolitical and inter-religious dimensions. The focus is on Muslim Americans as they are subject to the unique interplay of having a long-established presence in America, maintaining a unified religious community as they increase exponentially in racial, ethnic and socioeconomic diversity, and holding onto their spiritual, psychological and social resources as live they through an era of extreme anti- Muslim attitudes and rhetoric. In order to acknowledge the distinctive situation faced by Muslim American couples, the focus of this study is on those couples who have been married for at least six years (i.e., from September 11th through The Iraq War). In fact, attention to the impact of religious oppression and discrimination towards Muslims in America is vital for broadening the concepts and practical experiences of multicultural counseling. Moreover, while much academic research has addressed racism in multicultural counseling, religious discrimination has been largely ignored. Due to the fact that the current trend of religious prejudice is particularly severe following September 11th and The Iraq War, it is hoped that the findings of this study contributes to filling the gap in the previous literature pertaining to religious discrimination and the Muslim American experience. This study informs social work practitioners of how to recognize and foster the strengths, coping mechanisms and faith integration of Muslim American couples as they respond to the negative affects of their present day sociopolitical environment. 2 Therefore, overall, the purpose of this study is to 1) assess how Muslim American couples are psychologically and relationally impacted by heightened discrimination in the wake of September 11th and The Iraq War, 2) gather information about the particular strengths