HHeemmeerrooccaalllliiss SSppeecciieess,, HHyybbrriiddss,, aanndd GGeenneettiiccss Terrence P. McGarty Copyright © 2009 Terrence P. McGarty, all rights reserved. Contents 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 13 1.1 Hybridizing ........................................................................................... 13 1.2 A Platform for Discovery....................................................................... 17 1.3 Outline of Book .................................................................................... 19 1.3.1 Form and Species ............................................................................................. 19 1.3.2 Genes and Gene Expression ............................................................................. 21 1.3.3 Phylogenetics and Classification ...................................................................... 21 1.3.4 Flower Color and Color Expression .................................................................. 22 1.3.5 Flower Color and Patterning ............................................................................ 23 1.3.6 Classic Genetics and Hybridizing ...................................................................... 23 1.3.7 Hybridizers ........................................................................................................ 24 2 Form and Species ....................................................................................... 25 2.1 Genotype and Phenotype ..................................................................... 25 2.2 Species ................................................................................................. 28 2.3 Breeding and Hybridizing ...................................................................... 31 2.4 Classification ........................................................................................ 32 2.5 Form .................................................................................................... 33 2.5.1 Parts of the Plant .............................................................................................. 34 2.5.2 Roots ................................................................................................................. 36 2.5.3 Scapes ............................................................................................................... 37 2.5.4 Branching .......................................................................................................... 37 2.5.5 Buds .................................................................................................................. 41 2.5.6 Flowers ............................................................................................................. 42 2.5.7 Stamens and Pollen .......................................................................................... 43 2.5.8 Pods .................................................................................................................. 44 2.5.9 Seeds ................................................................................................................ 47 2.6 Species ................................................................................................. 49 2.6.1 Buds .................................................................................................................. 63 2.6.2 Pods .................................................................................................................. 65 2.6.3 Scapes ............................................................................................................... 67 2.6.4 Seeds ................................................................................................................ 68 2.7 Early Bloomers ..................................................................................... 70 2.8 Later Blooms ........................................................................................ 73 2.9 Keys and Classification ......................................................................... 75 2.9.1 Simple Key to Twelve Species .......................................................................... 75 2 2.9.2 Stout Key .......................................................................................................... 77 2.9.3 Keys to New Species ......................................................................................... 79 2.9.4 Erhardt Key ....................................................................................................... 81 2.9.5 Plodeck Key ...................................................................................................... 82 2.9.6 Matsuoka and Hotta (1966) Lists Species ........................................................ 82 2.10 Appendix: Summary of Species .......................................................... 84 2.10.1 Flowers .......................................................................................................... 85 2.10.2 Buds ............................................................................................................... 87 2.10.3 Pods ............................................................................................................... 89 2.10.4 Leaves ............................................................................................................ 91 2.10.5 Roots ............................................................................................................. 94 2.10.6 Branching ...................................................................................................... 96 2.10.7 Seeds ............................................................................................................. 99 3 Genetic Principles and Applications ......................................................... 106 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 106 3.2 Preliminary Concepts and Definitions ................................................. 106 3.2.1 Chromosomes and Genes .............................................................................. 107 3.2.2 Chromosome .................................................................................................. 108 3.2.3 DNA ................................................................................................................ 110 3.2.4 Gene ............................................................................................................... 115 3.3 Genotype and Phenotype ................................................................... 117 3.4 Genetics ............................................................................................. 124 3.4.1 Plant Cells ....................................................................................................... 124 3.4.2 Plant DNA ....................................................................................................... 127 3.4.3 Plant Gene Processes ..................................................................................... 128 3.4.4 Activators ....................................................................................................... 131 3.4.5 Repressors ...................................................................................................... 134 3.4.6 Summary of Actions ....................................................................................... 135 3.5 Expression Analysis and Implications .................................................. 136 3.5.1 Approach: Engineering versus Science .......................................................... 136 3.5.2 A Control Paradigm ........................................................................................ 136 3.5.3 Cell Signaling: Intra and Inter Cell .................................................................. 137 3.6 Flower Color Expression ..................................................................... 139 3.6.1 Pathways and Enzymes .................................................................................. 140 3.6.2 Anthocyanins .................................................................................................. 141 3.6.3 Other Color Elements ..................................................................................... 144 3.6.4 Carotenoids .................................................................................................... 145 3.6.5 Flavones .......................................................................................................... 146 3.6.6 Pathways ........................................................................................................ 147 3.6.6.1 Anthocyanin Pathway .............................................................................. 148 3.6.6.2 Carotenoid Pathway ................................................................................ 153 3 3.6.6.3 Flavonol Pathway ..................................................................................... 154 3.7 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 154 4 Phylogenetics, DNA, Classification ........................................................... 155 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 155 4.2 Key Questions .................................................................................... 155