AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Elizabeth Lee Hoffman for the degree of Master of Arts in Clothing, Textiles, and Related Arts presented onOctober 25, 1982 Title: Dress and Acculturation: Clothing Transitions of the Mien .) Abstract approved: Redacted for Privacy Dr. Ruth E. Gates The Mien are recent United States immigrants from Laos. They left Southeast Asia at a time of great political upheaval. Because of their close ties with United States governmental operations during the South- east Asian war, conditions for Mien in Laos made flight imperative as Pathet Lao forces now control the country. A major portion of Mien im- migrants have settled in Portland, Oregon. Mien costume is colorful and elaborate. Textile processes employed include embroidery, applique, and braiding. Specific information about Mien dress was not evident in literature sources. Changes in appearance of Portland Mien indicated a change in their clothing use. The purpose of this study was to record these changes and note under what conditions the changes occurred. The interplay between dress, ethnicity, and ac- culturation was explored. Thirty Portland Mien respondents answered specific questions about ethnicity and clothing use during the period between January and June, 1982. Responses were coded and relationship between ethnicity and clothing was tested by the use of the chi-square statistic. A chi- square value of 4.46 was attained with one degree of freedom (.05) p;,.02), thus indice:ng that the two variables were not independent. Open-ended interviews were initiated to collect detailed information on clothing construction and garment design. Several interviews were conducted with non-Mien persons who had special knowledge of Mien cul- ture. It was found that Western garb has largely replaced traditional garments for everyday use by all Portland Mien except the elderly. Baby hats, hand bags, baby packs, and jewelry were the only items that re- mained in current, everyday use. Women wore traditional garments to formal affairs; however, very few men continued traditional dress use. Acculturation theory was supported by examples from the Portland Mien. Tangible objects were more easily adopted than intangible things such as patterns of behavior. Adoption of new culture elements took place when economic or social advantage was gained. Forms transferred before meanings associated with the forms. In some cases, incomplete patterns of usage of adopted elements were observed. Dress and Acculturation: Clothing Transitions of the Mien by Elizabeth Lee Hoffman A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Completed October 25, 1982 Commencement June 1983 APPROVED: Redacted for Privacy Professor of Clothing, Textiles, and Related Arts in charge of major Redacted for Privacy Department Mead of Clothing, Textiles, and Related Arts Redacted for Privacy Dean of Gradu e School Date thesis is presented October 25, 1982 Typed by Mary J. Griswold for Elizabeth Lee Hoffman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express her deepest appreciation to Dr. Ruth Gates, Department of Clothing, Textiles, and Related Arts, for her wisdom and guidance. Her commitment to learning is an inspiration to scholars everywhere. Dr. Tom Hogg, Department of Anthropology, is thanked for his excellent advice, assistance, and encouragement. Helen Berg, Survey Research Center, is thanked for her statistical expertise.Pamela Ulrich, Department of Clothing, Textiles, and Related Arts, is also thanked for her aid in regard to statistical measures. Appreciation is expressed to the other committee members, Dr. Alan Sugawara for his technical assistance, and Nancy Bryant for her support and excellent advice. Mimi Hjersman, Graduate School Office, is thanked for her procedural input and guidance. A special thank you is extended to Sylvia Lombard.Her tireless efforts as translator and liaison and her willingness to share vital information were greatly appreciated. Her objectivity, insight, and knowledge of Mien culture proved invaluable for the completion of this study. Thanks are also extended to Lois Calloway and Elizabeth Ciz (two women with special knowledge of the Mien) for their time and assistance on the writer's behalf. Deepest gratitude is expressed to my close friends and family for their encouragement and understanding. A very special thank you is ex- tended to my mother, Evelyn, for her constant faith and financial support. Finally, sincere thanks and appreciation go to the Mien people for offering their time to introduce an "outsider" to their culture and for generously allowing close examination of their costume. The writer hopes the warmness of their welcome will be returned by Americans as this immigrant group settles in the United States. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I INTRODUCTION 1 Definition of Terms 5 Statement of the Problem 6 Purpose 6 Hypotheses 6 Assumptions 7 Limitations 7 II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9 Introduction 9 Acculturation 10 Ethnicity 13 Refugees 17 Clothing Theory 19 Mien History and Culture 22 Origin and Migration 22 Population and Settlement Patterns 23 Identity 24 Language 25 Religion 26 Social Structure and Domestic Life 28 Economy 29 Political Structure and Status Achievement 30 Cultural Traits 31 Cultural Relations 32 III PROCEDURE 34 Introduction 34 Literature Survey 34 Questionnaire 35 Selection of Sample 39 Open-Ended Interview 39 Mien Respondents 39 Non-Mien Respondents 40 Participant Observation 41 Analysis 41 IV FINDINGS 43 Introduction 43 Raw Materials 45 Cloth (dia) 45 Embroidery Thread (fei) 47 Pompon Yarn 48 Silver (nvaanh) 48 Miscellaneous Materials 49 Textile Techniques 49 Embroidery (tshonqx tshonqx) 49 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) Chapter Page Applique (dia-Pvanqh) 53 Braiding (hwatv or binz) 54 Other Applied Design 56 Traditional Adult Female Dress 56 Introduction 56 Pants (houx) 57 Sash (la= sin) 62 Coat (lwi) 62 Turban (mh qawnqv-Peu) 65 Cape/Baby Carrier (swanqx pwix) 68 Leg and Footwear 73 Leggings (lamb paeng) 73 Shoes 74 Cloth Boots (panb zia waab) 74 Jewelry 76 Accessories 77 Body Modification 77 Teeth 77 Hair 79 Make-up 79 Ear Lobe Distension 79 Current Adult Female Dress 80 Traditional Adult Male Dress 81 Introduction 81 Pants (houx) 81 Sash (honx han) 81 Jacket (lwi) 83 Headgear 85 Turban (mh gawngv-peu) 85 Beret (muac kopv) 87 Leg and Footwear 87 Jewelry 88 Accessories 88 Body Modification 88 Current Adult Male Dress 90 Adolescent Dress 90 Traditional Children's Dress 90 Introduction 90 Baby Hat (kuh nclwaaz muac) 92 Bib (tsaanh tawic) 98 Jewelry 101 Current Children's Dress 101 Special and Critical Activities 101 Weddings 101 Funerals 102 Magico-Religious Activities 104 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) Chapter Page Ethnicity 105 Description of Sample 105 Ethnicity in Relation to Dress 109 Ethnicity 109 Clothing Use Score 110 Ethnicity in Relation to Clothing Use 111 Acculturation 112 Thailand 112 United States 114 V CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION 116 Introduction 116 General Hypothesis 1 116 General Hypothesis 2 121 Working Hypothesis 1 123 Working Hypothesis 2 124 VI RECOMMENDATIONS 126 Use of Present Study 126 Improvement of Present Study 126 Further Study 127 VII SUMMARY 129 Purpose of Study 129 Justification of Study 129 Hypotheses 130 Assumptions 130 Limitations 130 Procedure 131 Findings 131 Traditional Dress 131 Current Dress 132 Ethnicity 132 Acculturation 133 Conclusions 133 Recommendations 134 Use of Present Study 134 Improvement of the Study 134 Further Study 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 APPENDICES 140 Appendix A - Data Sheet 141 Appendix B - Ethnicity and Clothing Use Score Table 143 List of Figures Figure Page A. Embroidery Techniques 50 B. Silver-wrapped Threads 56 C. Man's Sash 83 List of Tables Table Page 1. Ethnicity Sub-categories, by Sex 110 2. Clothing Use Sub-categories, by Sex 111 3. Chi-square Manipulation Contrasting 112 Clothing Use and Ethnicity List of Plates Plate Page 1. Mien women in traditional dress 44 2. Securing of basted applique pieces with braid 55 3. Making braid 55 4. Embroidered pants 58 5. houx-tsaux - older version 60 6. houx-tsaux - newer version 60 7. Embroidery under lwi-kwan with silver clasp 64 8. Turban back with twisted silver strands 64 9. Turban front with silver strands 67 10. Ceremonial swangx pwix 69 11. Everyday swangx pwix 69 12. Fastening the swangx pwix 72 13. Woman from Luang Prabang 75 14. Purse with zipper 78 15. Man's pants 82 16. Man's jacket 84 17. Man with beret, preparing to wrap turban 86 18. Man in traditional dress with turban 86 19. Small purse with drawstring closure 89 20. Male in typical Western wear with baby wearing traditional Mien baby hat 91 21. Adult male dress, adolescent dress 91 List of Plates (cont.) Plate Page 22. Mother with children wearing baby hats 93 23. Skull cap for newborns 95 24. Older version of female baby hat 95 25. Girl's and boy's baby hats 97 26. Girl's baby hat, man's Western shirt with Mien embroidery 97 27. Variation of boy's baby hat 99 28. Baby bib front, boy's hat, wrist bracelet 100 29. Bib back 100 30. Wedding garb 103 31. Wedding leggings 103 32. Nuclear-extended family: parents, children, grandparents 107 DRESS AND ACCULTURATION: CLOTHING TRANSITIONS OF THE MIEN Chapter I INTRODUCTION Throughout history, clothing has been used to manifest the rela- tionship a human being has to another and to the outside world. It may serve as an indicator of social roles, a reflection of a person's eco- nomic or political status within a community, or an avenue for aesthetic expression. Clothing may enhance ritual or be used to deter unwanted .spiritual phenomena. It may provide a means for sexual enticement or discourage personal contact through camouflage (Roach and Eicher, 1979 : 20-21). Keali'inohomoku (1979) avers that one wears his cultural values. Since posture, gesture, and behavior are dependent upon the physical restraints of costume, dress is designed to elicit prescribed modes of behavior.