DESIGNED LANDSCAPES in QUEENSLAND, 1859-1939: experimentation – adaptation – innovation. by Jean Constance Robertson SIM B.Des.St. (UQ), B.Arch. (UQ), Grad.Dip.Land.Arch. (QUT), MA-Conservation Studies (York), AAILA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Queensland University of Technology November, 1999 [This electronic copy was compiled in November 2007] ABSTRACT The conservation of historic cultural landscapes in Queensland is in its infancy. Effective conservation practice, however is based on sound historical information, and no previous study has investigated the historical development of local parks, gardens and other landscapes. The objectives of this research were to examine the factors which influenced landscape design in Queensland, to identify the forms and expressions of design derived from these influences, and to identify any distinctive aspects related to local landscape character. The timeframe chosen for this investigation was from the beginning of the separate colony of Queensland (1859) to the outbreak of World War 2 (1939). Using historical method, the research began with an exploration of published primary sources (particularly garden literature from the 1860s to 1930s) related to Queensland and other 'tropical' areas. A series of hypotheses was proposed to explain the findings, and these were tested by further analysis and data gathering. There followed a triple-layered central proposition, suggesting that: (i) in Queensland, the traditional delineation of styles to describe landscape design is of limited application because of the lack of elite professional designers and wealthy clients; (ii) there developed a discernible 'tropical landscape design character' in suitable climatic areas, which included two distinct visual aspects expressed in the landscape (the 'exotic' and the 'prosaic'); and, (iii) these design outcomes were the result of a design process of 'acclimatisation' experienced by early settlers (gardeners and designers) working in unfamiliar lands and climates, and includes the stages of experimentation, adaptation and innovation. page ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 The Scope of Research INTRODUCTION.................................................................... 1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND ............................................... 2 Purpose of Study – Developing a Research Approach – Assumptions – Limitations – Influences on Landscape Design THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE.......................................... 16 STRUCTURE OF THESIS .................................................... 22 Chapter 2 A Theoretical Framework for Designing Landscapes INTRODUCTION.................................................................. 25 LANDSCAPE DESIGN AS PROCESS AND PRODUCT.... 26 Nature and Culture in Landscape Design – Landscape Design in Theory – Change and Landscape Design CLASSIFYING LANDSCAPE DESIGN .............................. 37 Defining Styles –Types and Typologies CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 2 .......................................... 62 Chapter 3 A Theoretical Framework for Understanding Landscapes INTRODUCTION.................................................................. 64 DESCRIBING LANDSCAPES.............................................. 65 Historiography and Landscape – History and Theory – Other Landscape Histories – Other Design Histories – Garden or Landscape History INTERPRETING LANDSCAPES......................................... 82 Landscape Meaning – Messages – Expressions of Meanings – Intentions – Landscape Values CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 3 ........................................ 101 Chapter 4 Garden Literature in Queensland INTRODUCTION................................................................ 103 QUEENSLAND PUBLICATIONS...................................... 104 Documentary Sources – Local Holdings –Review of Queensland Publications AUTHORS AND DESIGN IDEAS ..................................... 127 LANDSCAPE GARDENING PROFESSION ..................... 140 CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 4 ........................................ 145 Chapter 5 Observing Queensland INTRODUCTION................................................................ 146 GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT............................................ 148 People and their Environment – Climate and Horticulture – Nature, Science and Garden Design – Plants and Garden Design HISTORICAL CONTEXT................................................... 186 Developmental Sequence for Queensland CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 5 ........................................ 199 page iii Chapter 6 The Landscape Design Evolution Model INTRODUCTION................................................................ 201 ACCLIMATISATION: LANDSCAPE DESIGN EVOLUTION MODEL ......................... 202 Origin of Model Proposition STAGE 1: OBSERVE AND EXPERIMENT ...................... 206 Botanic Observations – Horticultural Experimentation – Lifestyle and Shelter. STAGE 2: ADAPT AND REFINE ...................................... 230 Horticultural Adaptations – Adapting Garden Constructions. STAGE 3: INNOVATE........................................................ 261 Wild Gardening on Fern Island – Innovations in Shade Gardening Practices – Novel Planting Arrangements – Novel Garden Constructions. CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 6 ........................................ 287 Chapter 7 The Tropical Genre of Landscape Design INTRODUCTION................................................................ 289 TROPICAL LANDSCAPE GENRE.................................... 290 Utilitarian Arrangements and The Prosaic Aspect – Formal Arrangements (Classical Tradition) – Informal Arrangements (Romantic Tradition) THE EXOTIC ASPECT....................................................... 321 Exotic-Looking Feature Plants TROPICAL LANDSCAPE CHARACTER ........................ 341 CONCLUSION TO CHAPTER 7 ........................................ 349 Chapter 8 The Research Results INTRODUCTION................................................................ 351 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .............................................. 352 Summary of Results – Review of Study Approach CONCLUSIONS .................................................................. 357 Theoretical Significance of Findings – Wider Theoretical Implications – Practical Implications – Further Research Directions – General Conclusions SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Basic References ........................................................................ 360 (2) Theoretical Framework and Secondary Sources........................ 361 (3) Primary Sources (Queensland) .................................................. 381 (4) Research Methods...................................................................... 388 APPENDICES A. Review of Terms ........................................................................ 390 B. Historiographical Reviews ........................................................ 408 C. Review of Landscape Design Styles........................................... 414 D. Research Procedural Data ........................................................ 430 E. Data Sources Not Investigated .................................................. 437 F. Early Landscape Designers in Queensland............................... 443 G. Plants in Early Queensland....................................................... 453 «Q» page iv List of Figures FIGURE 1.1 : RESEARCH SEQUENCE SUMMARY .............................................................19 FIGURE 5.1 : GRIFFITH TAYLOR'S 'CRESCENT OF SETTLEMENT' IN AUSTRALIA ...........151 FIGURE 5.2 : GRIFFITH TAYLOR'S HYTHERGRAPHS & CLIMOGRAPHS...........................155 FIGURE 5.3 : GRIFFITH TAYLOR'S NATURAL REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA .........................155 FIGURE 5.4 : GRIFFITH TAYLOR'S FEATURES OF TROPICAL AUSTRALIA ......................156 FIGURE 5.5 : BRISBANE TOWN IN 1844 .......................................................................185 FIGURE 5.6 : EARLY PASTORAL OCCUPATION IN QUEENSLAND ..................................190 FIGURE 6.1 : LANDSCAPE DESIGN EVOLUTION MODEL................................................199 FIGURE 6.2 : SIMOND'S "CYCLES OF DESIGN EXPRESSION"..........................................202 FIGURE 6.3 : 1888 QUEENSLAND'S CONSERVATORY AT MELBOURNE EXHIBITION........233 FIGURE 6.4 : 1897 BUSH-HOUSE AT QUEENSLAND INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION..........233 FIGURE 6.5 : 1906 BUSH-HOUSE AT BOWEN PARK.......................................................233 FIGURE 6.6 : 1922 COLE'S BUSH-HOUSE DESIGN NUMBER 3........................................240 FIGURE 6.7 : 1922 COLE'S BUSH -HOUSE LATH DESIGN...............................................240 FIGURE 6.8 : 1922 COLE'S BUSH-HOUSE DESIGN NUMBER 2........................................240 FIGURE 6.9 : 1911 VERANDAH AT MYALL PLAINS [STATION]......................................243 FIGURE 6.10 : 1970S VERANDAH CREEPERS AT GRACEMERE [STATION] .....................243 FIGURE 6.11 : 1913 CREEPERS OVER OLD HOUSES, ADELAIDE STREET .......................243 FIGURE 6.12 : 1864 KEMP'S RUSTIC GARDEN SHELTER ...............................................246 FIGURE 6.13 : 1878 BAND PAVILION IN BRISBANE BOTANIC GARDENS .......................246 FIGURE 6.14 : 1910 SECOND BANDSTAND IN BRISBANE BOTANIC GARDENS ...............246 FIGURE 6.15 : 1914 BANDSTAND IN BOWEN PARK ......................................................247 FIGURE 6.16 : 1915 BANDSTAND IN NEW FARM PARK ................................................247 FIGURE 6.17 : 1917 BANDSTAND WICKHAM