THE SEGMENTAL AND SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY OF FATALUKU A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MANOA¯ IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LINGUISTICS AUGUST, 2015 By Tyler M. Heston Dissertation Committee: Victoria Anderson, Chairperson Kenneth Rehg Lyle Campbell Patricia Donegan Ulrich Kozok Keywords: Fataluku, Phonology, Prosody, Intonation ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Though putatively single-authored, this dissertation would never have been possible without the faithfulness, encouragement and support of a great many individuals. In the first place, I am extremely grateful for my committee, and the way they have poured into my life. My decision to become a phonologist was a direct influence of Dr. Rehg and Dr. Donegan, and my passion for phonetics and intonation was sparked by Dr. Anderson. I thank Dr. Campbell for teaching me how to pursue original documentary work and introducing me to Fataluku through field methods, and thank Dr. Kozok for the enthusiasm he has developed for my research and for his great kindness and help. I am also extremely grateful to Leo Elizario, who began teaching me the Fataluku language, and who far surpassed any reasonable expectation in taking care of everything I needed during my time in Timor. I am also very grateful to Cardoso Serafin and Potenzo Lopes, who are, I am convinced, the most superb guides in Timor. Jose do Karmo and Joctan Lopes have also been instrumental, not only for the time they spent recording with me, but also for introducing me to a substantial portion of the population of Lospalos. I am also extremely grateful for the help of the families of Leo Elizario and Jose do Karmo, Luciano and Adolfo Jonato, Natalicio da Costa Pacheco, Hugo Chavez, Lydia, Hendriques Avito and the many other Timorese individuals who have helped me so much. Luluana tali lafai!¯ (Thank you very much!). Melody Ross has also been a great help to me, encouraging me to go to Timor and helping with a myriad of questions along the way. I am also very grateful to Amber Camp for her help and support in the field. To Bradley Rentz I am extremely indebted for his help with LATEX and FLEx, and to Nozomi Tanaka for sharing the LATEX template on which the formatting of this dissertation is based. I thank Gregory Finley for developing and distributing FLEx-TEX, which was used to create the wordlists in the appendices by exporting lexical content from FLEx. I am grateful to my classmates for all the help and exchange of ideas during our original field methods class on ii Fataluku, especially my officemate Tom Dougherty. For the Tibeto-Burman connection, I thank another of my officemates, John Van Way, for our constant exchange of ideas, recordings and bewilderment over strange sounds. To Joelle Kirtley I owe the primary thanks for immediate adoption into the department. I am so grateful to be a part of such a tremendous department; you guys are the best! Great thanks are also due to Kevin Baetscher, Samantha Rarrick, Sejung Yang and Olivia Steiger for their particular help on the day of the defense. I am also very grateful for the generous financial support of this project provided by the Bilinski Educational Foundation, the Arts and Sciences Student Research Award and the Department of Linguistics Endowment Fund. In Florida, I would like to thank especially Pastor Tim, Dr. Jim and the rest of the “Greek Club,” where my passion for language really began to take root. Χάριc Ímˆin kaÈ εἰρήνη ἀπὸ jeouˆ πατρὸς ἡμwnˆ kaÈ kurÐou >Ihsouˆ Qristouˆ. I am also very thankful to Dr. Earle, who lent me my first linguistics book, which, appropriately, I read on vacation in Hawai‘i. Finally, words cannot express the debt I owe to my parents, for all they have done for me. iii ABSTRACT This dissertation describes the segmental and prosodic phonology of Fataluku (IPA [fataluku], ISO 639-3 ddg), a highly underdocumented Papuan language in East Timor (island Southeast Asia). Fataluku is classified as a member of the Timor-Alor-Pantar language (TAP) family, which currently includes approximately 25 members spread across Timor and nearby islands (Klamer, 2014; Schapper et al., 2014). Topics discussed include Fataluku’s phoneme inventory, its segmental and prosodic phonological substitutions, its prosodic structure, its word-level prosody and its sentence-level intonation. A grammar overview, wordlist and glossed text are also included. Fataluku has SOV word order and makes extensive use of verb serialization and switch reference. The phoneme inventory includes 5 vowels and 15 consonants, in addition to three loan phonemes (the voiced stops /b/, /d/ and /g/). Surface long vowels and diphthongs also occur, though both are represented underlyingly as vowel sequences (identical in the case of long vowels, nonidentical in the case of diphthongs). As for prosody, I find no convincing evidence for stress in Fataluku, although bimoraic feet play an important role in several aspects of the phonology. Prosody at the word level is governed by accentual phrases (APs), prosodic units containing a single word or a few syntactically close words. APs are organized into intonational phrases (IPs), prosodic units which bear a complete intonational contour and which can occur bounded by silence. This dissertation has implications for historical-comparative work in the region, as well as for the study of prosodic theory and typology more generally. This work also contributes to the Timorese Ministry of Education’s vision to establish mother tongue literacy among the Fataluku people and each of the country’s other indigenous linguistic groups. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ....................................... ii Abstract ............................................. iv Lists of Tables and Figures .................................. xi List of Abbreviations and Symbols .............................. xv 1 Introduction ........................................ 1 1.1 Language Background . 1 1.1.1 Geography and History . 1 1.1.2 Language Situation in Timor . 2 1.1.3 Linguistic Ecology: Level of Vitality . 5 1.1.4 Language Documentation and Description . 6 1.2 The Present Dissertation . 7 1.2.1 Goals and Contributions . 7 1.2.2 Theoretical Framework . 7 1.2.3 Data and Software . 8 1.2.4 User Guide . 10 1.2.5 Dissertation Overview . 12 2 Grammar Overview .................................... 13 2.1 Phonology . 13 2.1.1 Phonemes . 13 2.1.2 Orthography . 15 2.2 Summary of Word Order Correlates . 16 2.3 Syntactic Categories and Morphology . 18 2.3.1 Pronouns . 18 2.3.2 Nouns . 20 2.3.3 Adjectives? . 22 2.3.4 Verbs . 23 2.3.5 Numerals . 25 2.3.6 Conjunctions . 26 2.4 Noun Phrases . 28 2.4.1 Possession . 28 v 2.4.2 Numbered Noun Phrases . 29 2.4.3 NP Order Template . 30 2.5 Verb Phrases and Simple Clauses . 31 2.5.1 Argument Structure . 31 2.5.2 Aspect and Time . 32 2.5.3 Negation . 33 2.5.4 Reflexive . 33 2.5.5 Reciprocal . 34 2.6 Switch reference and verb serialization . 35 2.6.1 Two Strategies for Combining Verbs . 35 2.6.2 Switch Reference . 35 2.6.3 Serial Verbs . 37 2.6.4 Give Constructions . 41 2.6.5 Causatives . 43 2.6.6 Topicalization . 45 2.6.7 Relative Clauses . 46 2.7 Clause types . 49 2.7.1 Polar Questions . 49 2.7.2 Wh- questions . 50 2.7.3 Imperatives . 52 2.7.4 Quotation . 53 2.8 Historical relationships . 54 2.8.1 Subgrouping . 54 2.8.2 Vowel Reflexes . 56 2.8.3 Consonant Reflexes . 56 3 Phonemes .......................................... 58 3.1 Consonant Phonemes . 58 3.1.1 Stops . 59 3.1.2 Affricates . 63 3.1.3 Fricatives . 65 3.1.4 Nasals . 76 3.1.5 Liquids . 76 3.1.6 Glides . 78 3.2 Vowel Phonemes . 79 3.2.1 Minimal Pairs for Vowel Quality . 79 vi 3.3 Syllable Structure and Phonotactics . 81 3.3.1 Syllable Structure . 81 3.3.2 Limitations on Consonant Distribution . 81 3.4 Complex Segments . 82 3.4.1 Vowel Length . 82 3.4.2 The Analysis of Long Vowels and Diphthongs . 87 3.4.3 The Analysis of /j/ . 93 3.5 Orthography . 94 4 Phonological Rules and Processes ............................ 96 4.1 Rules vs. Processes . 96 4.2 Phonological Rules . 97 4.2.1 Consonant Mutation . 97 4.2.2 Glottal Stop Insertion . 108 4.2.3 Final Vowel Insertion . 109 4.3 Segmental Processes . 109 4.3.1 Glottal Stop Deletion . 109 4.3.2 Vowel Fusion . 111 4.3.3 Nasalization . ..