Twenty-Five Years of Research on Women Farmers in Africa: Lessons and Implications for Agricultural Research Institutions with an Annotated Bibliography Cheryl R. Doss Economics Program Paper 99-02 Economics Program Paper 99-02 Twenty-Five Years of Research on Women Farmers in Africa: Lessons and Implications for Agricultural Research Institutions with an Annotated Bibliography Cheryl R. Doss* * Cheryl R.Doss is an Affiliate Scientist with the CIMMYT Economics Program and an Assistant Professor of Economics at Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, USA. The views expressed in this paper are the author’s and do not necessarily reflect CIMMYT’s views or policies. 61 CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises over 55 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT’s research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies. CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture—peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 1999. Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. The designations employed in the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Printed in Mexico. Correct citation: Doss, C.R. 1999. Twenty-Five Years of Research on Women Farmers in Africa: Lessons and Implications for Agricultural Research Institutions; with an Annotated Bibliography. CIMMYT Economics Program Paper No. 99-02. Mexico D.F.: CIMMYT To cite the Annotated Bibliography: Doss, C., and A. McDonald. 1999. Gender Issues and the Adoption of Maize Technology in Africa: An Annotated Bibliography. The Annotated Bibliography of Twenty-Five Years of Research on Women Farmers in Africa: Lessons and Implications for Agricultural Research Institutions; with an Annotated Bibliography. CIMMYT Economics Program Paper No. 99-02. Mexico D.F.: CIMMYT ISSN: 1405-7735 AGROVOC descriptors: Africa; Research; Diffusion of research; On farm research; Role of women; Labour allocation; Labour market; Female labour; Maize; Zea mays; Production factors; Farm inputs; Cooperative marketing; Input output analysis; Technology transfer; Appropriate technology; Innovation adoption; Research projects Additional Keywords: Participatory research; CIMMYT AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies E16 Production Economics Dewey decimal classification: 338.16 Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv Introduction ...............................................................................................................1 Labor ..........................................................................................................................2 Gender Division of Labor .................................................................................... 2 Household Labor Availability............................................................................... 6 Agricultural Labor Markets .................................................................................. 8 Conclusions: Labor and Gender .......................................................................... 9 Land ........................................................................................................................10 Access to Land ................................................................................................... 10 Security of Land ................................................................................................ 11 Changing Access to Land ................................................................................... 11 Access to Other Inputs..............................................................................................12 Access to Credit ................................................................................................. 13 Access to Fertilizer ............................................................................................. 14 Access to Extension and Information ................................................................. 15 Access to Mechanization .................................................................................... 16 Gender Issues in Access to Inputs: Summary...................................................... 16 Outputs ....................................................................................................................17 Household Decision-Making ....................................................................................18 Cooperative Bargaining and Collective Models .................................................. 19 Noncooperative Bargaining Models ................................................................... 19 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................21 References .................................................................................................................23 Annotated Bibliography............................................................................................ 27 iii Abstract Based on an extensive review of the literature on women farmers in Africa, this paper explores the potential reasons why women farmers have not adopted improved maize technologies and discusses the implications for agricultural research. Women farmers are often constrained by their lack of access to labor, land, and inputs. In addition, women may prefer different outputs than men. Finally, the dynamics of household decision-making affects technology adoption; roles and responsibilities within the household are often renegotiated when new technologies are adopted, and women may be reluctant to provide labor if they do not receive some of the benefits. Each section of this paper includes a number of questions that may provide insights into the gender roles and dynamics in a particular community. Three general conclusions can be drawn from the available literature. First, there is enormous complexity and heterogeneity among African households. Second, there is no simple way to summarize gender roles within African households and communities. Third, gender roles and responsibilities are dynamic; in particular, they change with new economic circumstances. An extensive annotated bibliography on gender issues and the adoption of maize technologies in Africa follows the review of studies. Acknowledgments The author would like to especially thank Amy MacDonald and Kirstin Thomas for their excellent research assistance on this project. Hilary Feldstein provided many useful resources and much encouragement. A number of people kindly responded to my numerous requests for information on maize and women farmers in Africa including Greg Edmeades, Mickie Swisher, Louise Fortmann, Jeffrey Alwang, Barbara MkNelly, Dianne Rocheleau, and Diane Russell. Doug Gollin, Sara Tisch, Prabhu Pingali, Wilfred Mwangi, and Mauricio Bellon all provided useful comments on various versions of this paper. I also thank David Poland, who edited the publication, and Eliot Sánchez Pineda for his design work on the cover and layout. iv Twenty-Five Years of Research on Women Farmers in Africa: Lessons and Implications for Agricultural Research Institutions Cheryl R. Doss Introduction Rather, the available literature tells us what issues may be important in different contexts and what questions need to For years, activists, donors, and researchers have pushed be asked in any given location. Thus, it provides detailed the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center information about the dimensions along which gender (CIMMYT) and other centers of the Consultative Group may matter. on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR) to do a better job of targeting their research toward women, Second, there is no simple way to summarize gender especially toward women farmers in Africa. However, the roles within African households and communities. If