Constraints and Motivations on the Participation of Saudi Arabian High School Students in Physical Activity and Sport Majed Essa Alahmad A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy College of Sport and Exercise Science Victoria University 2016 Acknowledgements After sincerely thanking Allah for all blessings and bounties, I would like to thank many people for their contribution, assistance, support and guidance. First, I would like to thank my father and mother for their daily prayers and enormous efforts that helped me to accomplish my goals. Special thanks to my wife Nada Alqasem and my children, Faisal, Nawaf and little son Turki, who accompanied me along the joyful journey of knowledge, and who created the right atmosphere for me to bring this research to fruition. I am also grateful to my home country (Saudi Arabia), which continuously offers its people free education from grade one, and to King Saud University Ministry and Higher Education Ministry for sponsoring my postgraduate education (Masters and PhD). Special thanks to my supervisors for their continued encouragement, support and valuable advice: first, my principal supervisor, Professor Bob Stewart, and my second supervisor, Dr John Tower, who showed me the way and guided me to become an accomplished researcher; they spent much time reading and editing my thesis and guided me throughout this study’s progress. I would also like to express my deep gratitude to the administration and staff at the College of Sport and Exercise Science at the Victoria University. I would like to express my sincerest thanks and deep appreciation to my PhD colleagues for giving me a memorable and enjoyable experience. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance provided at different times by several other people: Professor Neil Diamond, Dr Peter Ochieng, Dr Taha Selim Tstun and Dr Neal Sarhan. ii List of Publications The following papers were produced to disseminate the concept and results of the work undertaken by the author during the course of this PhD research. Conference Papers Alahmad, M., Stewart, B. and Tower, J. (2013). Physical Activity Participation Amongst Saudi Arabian High School Students: Preliminary Results. Paper presented at the International Sport Science Students Conference (ISSSC). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. University Of Malaya. Alahmad, M., Stewart, B. and Tower, J. (2013). Constraints on Participation of Saudi Arabian High School Students in Physical Activity and Sport. Paper presented at the Sports Management Association of Australia and New Zealand Conference(SMAANZ). Dunedin, New Zealand. University of Otago. Alahmad, M., Stewart, B. and Tower, J. (2013). Motivations for participating physical activity and sport: The experiences of Saudi Arabian high school students. Paper presented at the2013 Australia and New Zealand Association for Leisure Studies Conference (ANZALS). Frankston, Victoria. Australian and New Zealand Association of Leisure Studies. iii Abstract A low level of physical activity and sport participation among adolescents has been particularly evident over the past decade, and youth inactivity has become a significant public health issue that has attracted the attention of many researchers around the world (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015; World Health Organization, 2011). The purpose of this research project is to critically examine the major constraints and motivations in relation to physical activity and sport participation among male high school students who live in the city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Using the hierarchical model of leisure constraints designed by Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) and the motivational model developed by Frederick and Ryan (1993), this study explores the determinants of their physical activity and sport participation levels. Data were collected via a self-reported questionnaire completed by 909 male students aged 16–19 from Riyadh high schools in 2010–2011. The results of this study show that 74 per cent of respondents were not active enough to meet international guidelines for participation levels in physical activity and sport. By global standards, this figure suggests that male adolescents in Riyadh exhibit low levels of physical activity. The finding also showed that while many respondents were keen to participate, and understood the benefits associated with increased levels of physical activity, their ambitions were thwarted by a lack of knowledge, low levels of interpersonal support, and significant structural constraints. Lack of facilities and the lack of accessibility were identified as the highest constraints among respondents. Thus, it is not surprising to find that over 40 per cent of respondents said ‘the street’ was the most popular place for physical activity and sport participation. The results of this study also show statistically significant differences in constraints and motivational variables iv when mediated by respondents’ type of school, age, grade level and location in Riyadh, but the effect size of these differences was trivial. Finally, the findings suggest in order to increase participation, the Saudi government and its sport associations should not only promote the enjoyment and social connectedness associated with sports and active recreation – and thus reinforce the motivation to engage- but also create more facilities and structured spaces in which these activities can take place. v Declaration of Original Work I, Majed Essa Alahmad, declare that the PhD thesis entitled Constraints and Motivations on the Participation of Saudi Arabian High School Students in Physical Activity and Sport is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature: Date: 20 April 2016 vi Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... ii List of Publications ......................................................................................................... iii Abstract ........................................................................................................................... iv Declaration of Original Work ....................................................................................... vi List of Figures .................................................................................................................. x List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1: Introduction to Thesis ................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Physical Activity and Sport in Contemporary Society ............................................ 1 1.3 Background to the Study ....................................................................................... 10 1.4 Research Setting: Riyadh City .............................................................................. 14 1.5 Policy Issues in Physical Activity and Sport in Saudi Arabia .............................. 16 1.6 Research Problems ................................................................................................ 20 1.7 Research Aims and Objectives.............................................................................. 24 1.8 Research Significance ........................................................................................... 24 1.9 Research Contribution to Knowledge ................................................................... 25 1.10 Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................... 26 1.11 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................... 31 1.12 Definitions of Key Terms .................................................................................... 32 1.13 Research Delimitations ....................................................................................... 34 1.14 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................ 35 Chapter 2: Literature Review Part 1: Participation Levels —An International Perspective ..................................................................................................................... 37 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 37 2.2 Benefits of Participating in Physical Activity and Sport ...................................... 38 2.3 Problems Associated with Physical Inactivity ...................................................... 40 2.4 Setting the Scene for Examining Physical Activity and Sport Participation in Adolescent Populations ......................................................................................... 43 2.5 Physical Activity Measurements ........................................................................... 46 2.6 Physical Activity Guidelines for Young People ................................................... 50 2.7 Participation Levels of Physical Activity Among