First Printed 1993 First Reprinted 1995 Second Reprinted 1997 Price Rs. 30/ - Printed at Cherry's Printers, Kochi - 17, Phone: 345681 ii PREFACE The Marine Products Export Development Authority has been promoting the commercial aquacul ture of shrimp as a means for boosting India's seafood exports. At the same time, it is recognised that in order to have a sustained share in the world seafood market, aquaculture of other species, which are in great demand should also be encouraged. It was in this con­ text that a publication titled AQUACULTURE FEED was brought out at the time of INDAQUA '93, India's first aquacultu­ re exposition. The publication has been well received and we are now coming out with a reprint of this publication. We are confident that this publication will continue to generate interest in those who intend to take up aquaculture of these species to exploit the abundant natural resources available in this country for augumenting export production. \~-- Kochi : 682 036 (K. B.PILLAI) Date :Feb. 1997 Chairman MPEDA iii FOREWORD Feed is one of th e most essential inputs in aquaculture. The recent deve lopment in technology of manufacture of good quality feed has opened up a new dimension in fish production. Therefore, it was decided by the Organising Committee of "INDAQUA" - the First Aquaculture Show in India to bring out a handbook on Aquaculture Feed. The sincere effort taken by Dr. M. Paul raj, CMFRI to bring out this handbook is well appreciated. Dr. G. Santhana Kri shnan, Shri D. Vincent and Shri M. Shaji have coordinated this publication. I am sure that this handbook will be very useful to all fish/prawn farmers in India. (M 5AKTHlVEL) CHAIRMAN MPEDA COCHIN - 36 February 93 v AQUACULTURE FEED CONTENTS 1. Introduction .... ... .. ........................... 1 2. Impo r t~ n ce of feed .............. 1 ::I. FactorsAffecting Feed Design, Prod udicn and Feedi ng 2 4. Ba l<1nce of N utrients 4 4.1 Energy ....... ............ 4 4.2 Prolein and Amino Acids ... ... .............. 7 4.2.1 Essential Amino Acids ....................... 11 4.2.2 Supplementing diets with Amino Acids 14 4.2.3 Non-protein nitrogen uti lization 15 4.3 .Lipid s and Fatty Acids ......... ... ..................... 15 4.3.1 Phospholipids ............ ................... 16 4.3.2 Cholesterol ... ... .. ......... 16 4.3.3 Essential Fatty Acids. 17 4.3.4 EFA Deficiency Symptoms ................. 18 4.3.5 Lipid Sources ................................... 18 4.3.6 Negeli vc As pects of Lipids 18 4.4 Carbohydrates ................................................... ... 22 4.4.1 Carbohydrate Uti li sation in Fish .................... .. 23 4.4.2 Carbohydrate Utilisation in Prawns ........... 23 4.5 Vitamins .............................................................. ... 25 4.5.1 Water - Soluble Vita mins ............... .. 25 4.5.1.1 Vitamin C. ........................ .. 25 4.5.1.2 Choline ......................... ......... 28 4.5.1.3 In ositol .......................................... 29 4.5.1.4 Thiamine ..................................... .. 29 4.5.1.5 Ri bofla vin 30 4.5.1 .6 Pyridoxine 31 4.5.1.7 Panto thenic Acid 31 45.1.8 N iacin ................. .. 32 4.3.1.9 Bio tin ............. .............. ...................... .. ............. ........... 33 4.5.1.10 FolicAcid........................ .. ...................... ........ 33 4.5.1.11 Cyanocobalamin .................... .. 34 4.5.2 Fal-Soluble Vi tamins .. 34 4.5.2.1 Vitamin A . 34 4.5.2.2 Vitamin D 35 4.5.2.3 Vi tamin E 35 4.5.2.4 Vi tamin K 36 4.6 Minerals ...... .............. ......................... ................. 37 4.6.1 Calcium and Phosphorus .... .. ................ .. 38 4.6.2 Magnesium..... .. ......................................... .. 40 4.6.3. Zinc ......................... .. 40 4.6.4. Iron 41 4.6.5 Copper 41 4.6.6. Mangenese ............ .. .............. 41 4.6.7 Selenium ........... .. .............. .. 41 4.6.8 Icx:line .......... .................................... .. 42 4.6.9 Other mineral elements .......................................... 42 5. Feed Ingredients and their Nutritive Va lue ................. ................. 45 5.1 Ingredients of Animal O rigin .. 45 5.1.1 Fisheries By-Products 45 vii AQUACULTURE FEED 5.1.2 Poultry Feather and By-Product Meals .................................. 48 5. 1.3 Slaughter - house \oVa stes ............................................................ 48 5.1.4 Milk By-products .......................................................................... 48 5.1.5 Chicken Eggs ................................................................................ 49 5.1.6 Silk\\,orm Pupae .......................................................................... .. 49 5.2 Ingredien ts of Plant Origin ...................................................................... 49 5.2.1 Oi l cakes and Mea ls ...................................... " .............................. 49 5.2.2 Creal Products .............................................................................. 52 5.2.3 Roo t Cro ps ................................................................................... .. 52 5.2.4 Vas t .................................................................. 53 5.2.5 Molasses ..................................... 53 5.2.6 Alfa lfa ............................................................ ....... 53 5.2.7 Spirulina .............................. ................. ..................... .. 53 5.2.8 Mi scellaneous Ingredients ......................... 53 6. Additives 57 6.1 Bind ers 57 6.2 Antioxidants ................................ .. 57 6.3 Antimicrobial Agents .......... ... ......... ....................... .. 58 6.4 Chemo*altracti'\ nts and Feeding Stimulants .............................. ............ 58 6.5 Pigments ........................................................ 60 6.6 AnabolicAgents ...... .. .. ............................................ ...... ................... 60 6.7 Miscellaneous additives ........................................................... 61 7. j\1anufacture of ACjuaculure Feeds ............................................................... .. 62 7.1 Feed Types ________________________ . ______ . ____ . ________________________ __ . __ . ____ .. __ 62 7.1.1 \oVestFeeds .............................................. 62 7.1.2 Moist Feeds. ......... ....................................................... .. 62 7.1 .3 Dry Feeds .................................................................. 62 7.1.4 Larval Feeds...... ....................................................... 64 7.2 Select ion of Ingredients and Additives ................................................. .. 68 7.3 Fo rmulati o n of Feed ...... .................... ....................................................... 68 7.4 Feed Processing ......................... ... ....................... .................... 68 7.4.1 Premix Prepara tion .................... .. .................................. .. 70 7.4.2 Grinding .. ................... ......................... .. 70 7.4.3 Mixing ...... .. ............................ .. 70 7.4.4 Pe lleti .......................................................................... .. 72 7.4.5 Floating pellets .......................... ................... .. .. .............. 72 7.4.6 Cooling / Drying.. .. ............................................. 73 7.4.7 Crumbling ..................... ....................................... 73 7.4.8 Fa t spraying ................ .......................................... 74 7.4.9 Bagging ............ ........................... .. ....................................... 74 7.4.10 Sto rage ....................................................................... 74 7.4.11 QualityControl ............................................................................ .. 75 Feeding Strategies .................................................. 75 8.1 Feeding rate ........................................... .. ............................................ 75 8.2 Feeding Frequency ..................................................................... 77 8.3. Size of feed particles ............................ ...................................................... 77 8.4 Feeding methods .. ..................................................................... ................ 78 9. Literature Ci ted and Suggested for Further Reading........................................... 79 10. Appendix ......................... ......................................................... 84 viii AQUACULTURE FEED 1. INTRODUCTION Successful and sustainable aquaculture of finfish and crustaceans (prawns, lobsters and crabs), depend upon the provision of nurtitionally adequate, environmental- friendly and economically viable artificia l feeds. Feed is the major operational input, and feed costs normally range from 30 to 60 per cent of the operational expenditure in finfish and prawn cu lture systems. [n view of this, artificial fe eds should scientifically formulated, optimally processed, and judiciously suppli ed, considering the specific nutritional needs of the cultivated species and th e intensity of culture operations. 2. IMPORTANCE OF FEED [n extensive and semi-extensive systems, natural food contributes substanti ally to the nutrition of the cultured animals. Thus in these systems, the exogenous food supply needs to provide only nutrients which may be deficient in the natural food. Natural food production can also be increased through systematic and judicious application