Journal of Abnormal Psychology Copyright 2002 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 2002, Vol. 111, No. 3, 455–461 0021-843X/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0021-843X.111.3.455 Memory Distortion in People Reporting Abduction by Aliens Susan A. Clancy, Richard J. McNally, Roger K. Pitman Daniel L. Schacter, and Mark F. Lenzenweger Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital Harvard University False memory creation was examined in people who reported having recovered memories of traumatic events that are unlikely to have occurred: abduction by space aliens. A variant of the Deese/Roediger– McDermott paradigm (J. Deese, 1959; H. L. Roediger III & K. B. McDermott, 1995) was used to examine false recall and false recognition in 3 groups: people reporting recovered memories of alien abduction, people who believe they were abducted by aliens but have no memories, and people who deny having been abducted by aliens. Those reporting recovered and repressed memories of alien abduction were more prone than control participants to exhibit false recall and recognition. The groups did not differ in correct recall or recognition. Hypnotic suggestibility, depressive symptoms, and schizotypic features were significant predictors of false recall and false recognition. Reports of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse have tive, that illusory memories can be created (e.g., Schacter, 1999), been controversial. According to one perspective, exposure to and that there is little evidence that memories of trauma obey trauma can result in amnesia for memories that would be too different psychological laws than do memories of nontraumatic upsetting to be consciously accessible (e.g., Terr, 1991; van der events (Shobe & Kihlstrom, 1997). Finally, underscoring the mal- Kolk, 1994). Putative mechanisms for this amnesia include repres- leability of memory, skeptics have warned that therapies designed sion and dissociation. Repression has been conceptualized in a to recover memories of repressed (or dissociated) trauma may number of different ways ranging from active, motivated suppres- inadvertently foster false memories of trauma (e.g., Loftus, 1993). sion (e.g., Breuer & Freud, 1895/1955) to an automatic uncon- This controversy has stimulated scientific research on false scious defensive mechanism (e.g., Freud, 1946/1966). Dissocia- memory (for reviews, see Bjorklund, 2000; Roediger, 1996; tion refers to abnormal integration of thoughts, feelings, and Schacter, Norman, & Koutstaal, 1998). Roediger and McDermott experiences into the stream of consciousness and memory (e.g., (1995) revived and modified Deese’s (1959) paradigm to examine Bernstein & Putnam, 1986) so that traumatic memories can be split false recall and false recognition of semantically associated words. off from consciousness (e.g., Terr, 1991). Although there are In the Deese/Roediger–McDermott paradigm, participants hear a important conceptual differences between repression and dissoci- series of word lists, each comprising associates of a single non- ation (for a review, see Singer, 1990), the terms are used inter- presented theme word. For example, one list consisted of words changeably in the literature. These hypothesized processes do, associated with sweet (e.g., sour, candy, sugar, bitter). Following however, have several features in common: that advocates of list presentation, participants performed a recall test, and then recovered memories believe that they result in amnesia for trau- performed a recognition test composed of studied words, nonpre- matic events; that these buried memories nevertheless influence sented theme words (e.g., sweet), and other nonstudied words. thought, behavior, and physiological processes (e.g., Brown, Sche- False recall occurs when participants incorrectly recall a nonpre- flin, & Hammond, 1998); and that they can be retrieved years later sented theme word, and false recognition occurs when participants with scant distortion in detail (e.g., Terr, 1994). incorrectly claim to have studied a nonpresented theme word. Other psychologists question these claims (e.g., Lindsay & Using a variant of this paradigm, we found that women report- Read, 1994; Loftus, 1993), emphasizing that memory is construc- ing recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse were more prone to exhibit memory distortion than were control participants, or women who had always remembered their childhood sexual Susan A. Clancy, Richard J. McNally, Daniel L. Schacter, and Mark F. abuse (Clancy, Schacter, McNally, & Pitman, 2000). Unfortu- Lenzenweger, Department of Psychology, Harvard University; Roger K. nately, we were unable to establish whether the recovered mem- Pitman, Department of Psychology, Harvard Medical School, and Massa- ories were false or genuine and, therefore, whether the recovered chusetts General Hospital, Boston. memory group’s susceptibility to memory distortion was a func- Mark F. Lenzenweger is now at the Department of Psychology, State tion of cognitive impairments related to abuse or a function of University of New York at Binghamton. cognitive characteristics rendering them susceptible to developing Preparation of this article was supported in part by National Institute on false memories. Aging Grant NIA08441 and National Institute of Mental Health Grant The purpose of the experiment reported here was to examine MH61268. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Susan A. memory distortion in people who report recovered memories of Clancy, Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 1232 William traumatic events that seem unlikely to have occurred: abduction by James Hall, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. E-mail: space aliens. Claims of abduction by space aliens are becoming [email protected] increasingly common (e.g., Bartholomew & Howard, 1998; New- 455 456 CLANCY, MCNALLY, SCHACTER, LENZENWEGER, AND PITMAN man & Baumeister, 1997). Although narrative accounts of alien nition than the repressed memory and control groups combined. abduction have captured the attention and imagination of the According to the second hypothesis, the repressed memory group American public and have spawned many movies, TV shows, and consists of individuals who may be poised to recover “false” books, such reports have been ignored by the scientific community memories (as they have developed alien abduction beliefs). There- (e.g., Mack, 1994). More recently, psychologists have interpreted fore, the repressed and recovered memory groups combined should these claims as evidence of memory distortion (e.g., Newman & exhibit higher false recall and false recognition than the control Baumeister, 1997), in part because “abductees” seldom evince any group. According to the third hypothesis, the repressed memory signs or symptoms of mental illness (e.g., Spanos, Cross, Dickson, group has not (yet, perhaps) recovered false memories; thus, the & DuBreuil, 1993). Published narratives of alien abduction (Hop- recovered memory group should exhibit the highest false recall kins, 1981; Mack, 1994; Streiber, 1987), as well as the narratives and false recognition, followed in turn by the repressed memory related to us by our participants, follow a characteristic pattern. group and then the control group. That is, false recall and recog- When asked to relate his or her abduction experience, the modal nition should be most pronounced in those who have actually “abductee” begins by mentioning an (apparent) episode of sleep created false autobiographical memories, least pronounced in the paralysis. A nonpathological phenomenon, sleep paralysis occurs control group, and intermediate in the repressed memory group. when the cognitive and physiologic components of rapid eye Finally, because past research suggests a link between UFO- movement (REM) sleep become temporarily desynchronized related beliefs and schizotypy (i.e., latent liability for schizophre- (Hufford, 1982; Spanos et al., 1993). That is, the person awakens nia; e.g., Chequers, Joseph, & Diduca, 1997; Spanos et al., 1993), from REM sleep and becomes conscious of the full-body paralysis we predicted that the recovered and repressed groups would score that normally accompanies REM. Moreover, many people will higher than controls on measures designed to assess schizotypal experience hypnopompic (“upon awakening”) hallucinations dur- features. We also tested subsidiary hypotheses regarding the rela- ing these episodes. Hallucinations vary, but often include electrical tionship between other psychometric measures, false memory cre- tingling sensations throughout the body, feelings of levitation, loud ation, and group status. buzzing sounds, flashing lights, and most strikingly, visual hallu- cinations of figures hovering near one’s bed. The full episode Method seldom lasts more than a few seconds or minutes, after which the paralysis wanes and the hallucinations vanish. The modal “ab- Participants ductee” often assumes that something must have happened after The experimental groups were recruited from the community via news- the onset of the sleep episode but prior to full awakening. They paper notices saying that researchers at Harvard University were “seeking seek the aid of a hypnotherapist to help understand their anoma- people who may have been contacted or abducted by space aliens to lous experiences, and it is during hypnotic regression sessions that participate in a memory study.” The control group was recruited from the they “recall” memories of having been abducted (i.e.,