SUBJECT: THE WORLD OF CONQUERORS The history, literature, religion and culture of the Jains A thesis submitted to The Intercultural Open University Opeinde, The Netherlands By Dr Natubhai Shah For the doctoral degree In Jain Religion DEDICATION AS A MARK OF RESPECT AND DEVOTION TO AACAARYA VIJAY VALLABHSURISVARJI WHOSE VISION FOR THE JAIN COMMUNITY FOR EMPIRICAL AND SPIRITUAL EDUCATION HAS TRANSFORMED THOUSANDS OF YOUNG JAINS AS SUCCESSFUL CITIZENS OF THE WORLD 2 ABSTRACT ainism is the oldest extant religion in Eurasia but it is the least known in J the West. Although its teachings are as relevant in our own day as they were in the days of Mahavira who revived it more than two and half millennia ago, why this should be is almost certainly due to its small number of adherents in India: four millions plus (Jain leaders estimate twelve million and claim that it was much larger in earlier centuries of Common Era) out of a total population of nearly a billion. Jainism possesses a unique all-embracing precept from which all else flows: ahimsaa. Ahimsaa means ‘non-violence and reverence for all life’ a precept that forms the core of Jain theology; for Jains, both ascetic and lay, and it is the fundamental belief that governs their behaviour. This is supplemented by aparigraha (non-attachment to worldly possessions) and anenkaantavaada (multiplicity of views) This dissertation aims to analyse the role of Jain beliefs from their evolution in the mists of antiquity, through their reformulation by Mahavira, the last of the twenty four luminaries of Jainism in the sixth century BCE, and their historical influence on Jains and beyond up to our own times. It begins with an introduction on the Jain meaning of life, and the antiquity of Jainism. It follows with Jain history, its literature, its philosophy and teachings, the Jain community, its rituals, festivals and popular Jainism, and its culture. The thesis also discusses Jainism in the modern world covering topics such as animal welfare, environmental concerns and vegetarianism, the Jain view of the universe, Jain logic, science and Jainism, Jain art and architecture, Jain temples and places of worship, Jain institutions, and Jainism and the other major world faiths. The exemplary luminary for Jains is Mahavira, an older contemporary of the Buddha, who is often described by non-Jains as the 'founder' of Jainism. However, Mahavira is for Jains the last of the twenty-four tirthankaras 3 ('fordmakers' who cross the ocean of suffering to the other side of existence) or jinas (conquerors) of our era, and the inheritor of the religious teaching of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third jina. Mahavira's major systematic innovation was the introduction of the fourfold sangha: the fourfold division of the community into saadhus (male ascetics), saadhvis (female ascetics), sraavakas (laymen) and sraavikas (laywomen), and this fundamental division reflects the degree of observance of the Jain teachings. It also allows the symbiosis and interdependence of the two groups upon one another; the laity look after the material needs of the ascetics and in return the ascetics guide the lay people on the spiritual path. The essence of Jainism is of course the teaching of Mahavira. Jains revere a human being whose exemplary asceticism offers an idealised model for humanity to follow. This 'path of purification' is unique, not in its regime of austerities, yoga and meditation, which were common to the Sramanic tradition, but in its overwhelming ethical rigour, scientific approach, logical conduct and spirituality lead to the ultimate goal for the humanity of liberation (moksa) by self-conquest. The central preoccupation of Jain teachings is to realise this objective, to provide a definitive method, the ratnatraya or 'three jewels': samyak-darsana ('right faith'), samyak-jnana ('right knowledge') and samyak-caritra ('right conduct') together constitute the path to liberation. Jainism has vast amount of sacred literature, but there is hardly a comprehensive text, which discusses all aspects of Jainism. This dissertation is an attempt to provide much needed research to fill this gap, which can be useful to both the modern Jain community and the non-Jains. 4 THE WORLD OF THE CONQUERORS: The history, literature, religion, and culture of the Jains THE WORLD OF THE CONQUERORS History has witnessed many conquerors. There have been conquerors of regions, lands, kingdoms and great empires. In contrast to the military conquerors like Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar or Clive of India, the modern world has presented opportunities for some to carve out great empires in business and in property. Others metaphorically ‘conquer’ areas of scientific research, of sport, of entertainment and other such worldly affairs. These are, in a sense, external conquests. Often they prove to be fleeting and transitory. Great empires like those of the Romans or the British arise only to decline. Business achievements and sporting prowess are overtaken by events. In our personal lives too, happiness and fulfilment often seem to elude us. It is in this realm of the personal that the Jain religion holds out both a challenge and a way forward: ‘Jain’ means conqueror, a conqueror of the self. In this work, we shall explore the world of those who have striven to achieve victory over the self and to gain the rewards that flow from it. These rewards are not of the fleeting, contingent, material kind and the happiness achieved is independent of material circumstances and events. 5 THE WORLD OF THE CONQUERORS THE HISTORY, LITERATURE, RELIGION AND CULTURE OF JAINSM Contents page Declaration 2 Dedication 3 Abstract 4 The world of the conquerors 6 Contents 7 Preface and Acknowledgements 9 List of Tables and Diagrams 10 List of Plates 11 Transliteration and Pronounciation 12 Introduction Chapter 1.1 The Meaning of Life 13 Chapter 1.2 The Antiquity of Jainism 19 History Chapter 2.1 Traditional History of The Origin of Jainism and The First Tirthankara 22 Chapter 2.2 The Later Tirthankars 29 Chapter 2.3 Vardhamana Mahavira 35 Chapter 2.4 The Jain Sangha and Early Ascetics 44 Chapter 2.5 Prominent Aacaaryas 51 Chapter 2.6 Spread of Jainism and Royal Patronage 62 Chapter 2.7 Popular Support 71 Chapter 2.8 Decline and Revival 76 Chapter 2.9 The Schisms 78 Chapter 2.10 Jain Migration Abroad 86 Chapter 2.11 Jainism in the Twentieth Century 91 Literature Chapter 3.1 The Jain Canon 94 Chapter 3.2 Ancient Non-Canonical Literature 106 Chapter 3.3 Modern and Translated Literature 111 Religion Chapter 4.1 The Philosophy 115 Chapter 4.2 The Path of Purification 119 Chapter 4.3 (a) Nine Real Entities (Jiva) 127 Chapter 4.3 (b) Ajiva 132 Chapter 4.3 (c) Punya, Paapa, Aasrava, Bandha, Samvar, Nirjara and Moksa 144 6 Chapter 4.4 Karma 148 Chapter 4.5 Jain Logic, Psychology and The Theory of Knowledge 161 Chapter 4.6 Jain Concept of Knowledge 167 Chapter 4.7 The Concept of The Soul 180 Chapter 4.8 Relativism 183 Chapter 4.9 Spiritual Development 179 Chapter 4.10 The Cosmos 194 Chapter 4.11 Jain Ethics 203 Chapter 4.12 Ahimsaa, Aparigraha, Anekaantavaada 212 Chapter 4.13 Austerities 218 Chapter 4.14 Jain Yoga and Meditation 224 Chapter 4.15 The Scientificity of Jainism 235 Jain Community and Religious Practices Chapter 5.1 The Jain Community 239 Chapter 5.2 The Daily Duties of Ascetics and Laypersons 246 Chapter 5.3 Popular Jainism and Rituals 256 Chapter 5.4 Svetambara Rituals 261 Chapter 5.5 Penitential Retreat 270 Chapter 5.6 Digambara Rituals and Rituals of other Sects 277 Chapter 5.7 Sacred Days and Festivals 282 Chapter 5.8 Social Rituals 288 The Culture Chapter 6.1 Jain Values and The Modern World 296 Chapter 6.2 Animal Welfare 300 Chapter 6.3 Environmental Concerns 306 Chapter 6.4 Vegetarianism 314 Chapter 6.5 Jain Diet 320 Chapter 6.6 Jain Art and Architecture 326 Chapter 6.7 Temples and Places of Pilgrimage 343 Chapter 6.8 Jain Institutions 352 Chapter 6.9 The World’s Spiritual Quest 358 Appendices 380 Glossary 403 Bibligraphy 419 7 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ainism is regarded by its followers as the world’s oldest religion, which was revived J by the tirthankara Mahavira more than 2,500 years ago, in Bihar, northern India. He addressed himself to the mass of the people, delivering his teachings in Ardha Magadhi, then the language of the people in Magadha (Bihar). It is Mahavira who is credited with founding one of the distinctive features of contemporary Jain society and religion: the fourfold organisation of male and female ascetics and male and female laypeople. Throughout its long history, Jainism has seen periods when it has flourished and others when it has declined, but for thousands of years it has remained a living religion and a way of life in India. The three most important expressions of Jain teaching are the ‘Three Jewels’: Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. For followers of Jainism, the most important outward practices are ahimsaa, ‘non-violence and reverence for all life’, aparigraha, non-attachment to worldly possessions, power or position, and anekaantavaada, ‘relative pluralism’ or the multiplicity of views. Jainism can be seen as a microcosm of Indian society, yet its concepts have a direct relevance to many issues faced by the modern world. In the vibrant societies in which Jainism flourished, philosophical debates ranged widely, touching upon the entire range of human experience and understanding. Although all Jains shared a common fundamental outlook, differences of interpretation were bound to arise and these were responsible for a variety of rituals and worship, which led to the emergence of the four major sects of Jainism: Svetambar, Digambar, Sthanakvasi and Terapanthi.