B Environmental Effects of Tidal Energy Development Proceedings of a Scientific Workshop March 22-25, 2010 Editors: Brian Polagye1, Brie Van Cleve2, Andrea Copping2, and Keith Kirkendall3 1University of Washington, Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center, Box 352600, Seattle, Washington 98195 2Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Marine Sciences Laboratory, 1100 Dexter Ave. N, Seattle, Washington 98109 3NOAA Fisheries, Northwest Region, Hydropower Division, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd., Portland, Oregon 97232 U.S. Department of Commerce April 2011 Gary Locke, Secretary of Commerce NOAA technical memorandum # F/SPO - 116 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D., Administrator of NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service Eric C. Schwaab, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries i Suggested citation: Polagye, B., B. Van Cleve, A. Copping, and K. Kirkendall (editors). 2011. Environmental effects of tidal energy development. U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA Tech. Memo. F/SPO-116, 170 p. A copy of this report may be obtained from: Northwest Fisheries Science Center NMFS, NOAA 2725 Montlake Boulevard East Seattle, Washington 98112 Online at: http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/tm/ ii Table of Contents Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................ix 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................1 1.1 Workshop Overview ............................................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Report Structure and Content ............................................................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Planning and Regulatory Context ....................................................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Tidal Power Technology Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Tidal Power Siting ............................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Tidal Energy Devices .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.7 References ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17 2. Environmental Effects of Tidal Power ..............................................................................18 2.1 Conceptual Approach: Stressors and Receptors ............................................................................................................. 18 2.2 Environmental Effects ....................................................................................................................................................... 19 2.3 Installation Effects ............................................................................................................................................................. 19 2.4 Operational Effects............................................................................................................................................................ 19 2.5 Decommissioning Effects ................................................................................................................................................. 20 2.6 Accidents .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20 2.7 Scale of Development ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 2.8 References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 21 3. Environmental Stressors ....................................................................................................23 3.1 Presence of Devices: Static Effects .................................................................................................................................. 24 3.2 Presence of Devices: Dynamic Effects ............................................................................................................................ 30 3.3 Chemical Effects .............................................................................................................................................................. 35 3.4 Acoustic Effects ............................................................................................................................................................... 41 3.5 Electromagnetic Effects ................................................................................................................................................... 48 3.6 Energy Removal .............................................................................................................................................................. 55 3.7 Cumulative Effects ........................................................................................................................................................... 62 4. Environmental Receptors ...................................................................................................69 4.1 Physical Environment: Near-field ..................................................................................................................................... 71 4.2 Physical Environment: Far-field ........................................................................................................................................ 75 4.3 Habitat and Invertebrates ................................................................................................................................................. 82 4.4 Fish: Migratory .................................................................................................................................................................. 87 4.5 Fish: Resident ................................................................................................................................................................... 94 4.6 Marine Mammals and Seabirds ...................................................................................................................................... 103 4.7 Ecosystem Interactions ....................................................................................................................................................110 5. Workshop Outcomes: Challenges ..................................................................................115 6. Workshop Outcomes: Recommendations ....................................................................122 6.1 Approaches to Reducing Critical Uncertainties .............................................................................................................. 122 6.2 Approaches to Mitigating Environmental Stressors ........................................................................................................ 126 6.3 Development of Strategic and Coordinated Technologies and Capabilities .................................................................. 128 7. Concluding Remarks .........................................................................................................130 iii Appendix A — Glossary .........................................................................................................131 Appendix B — Plenary Session Extended Abstracts .......................................................136 B.1 – Tidal Technologies, Industry Overview, and the U.S. Department of Energy Water Power Team ............................ 136 B.2 – Ecological Effects of Tidal Energy: Experience from the Bay of Fundy ..................................................................... 140 B.3 – Physical Habitat and Natural Resources: Maine ....................................................................................................... 145 B.4 – Physical Habitat and Natural Resources: Puget Sound, Washington ....................................................................... 151 B.5 – Physical Habitat and Natural Resources: Alaska, with a Focus on Cook Inlet .......................................................... 156 Appendix C — Workshop Participant List ..........................................................................165 Appendix D — Workshop Agenda .......................................................................................168 Appendix E — Workshop Evaluation Results ....................................................................169 List of Figures Figure 1 – Workshop participant affiliations. ............................................................................................................................3 Figure 2 – Workshop participant geographic