Rural Primary School Students’ Experiences of a University Science Outreach Programme: Explorations of a Cultural Fit between Students’ Culture and the Chemistry Outreach Programme Gloria Penrice A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy College of Education University of Otago 2016 ii ABSTRACT There are widespread concerns internationally (Logan & Skamp. 2013; Martin, Mullis, Foy & Stanco, 2012) and in New Zealand (Chamberlain & Caygill, 2013; Gluckman, 2011; Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2014) about the decline in students’ interest and engagement in science education. As a result, fewer students are choosing to study science in the later secondary school years and to pursue science careers. This has lead to a decreasing number of science graduates, potentially negatively impacting on nations’ economic competitiveness and productivity. Furthermore, there are fewer scientifically literate citizens who are able to participate in science orientated discussions, debates and developments in society. This study explored rural primary school students’ experiences of Chemistry Outreach, a year-long science programme, which culminated in the students planning, designing, conducting and evaluating scientific investigations in their community. Previous research in science education has focused predominantly on single-level classes within urban and larger rural schools whereas this study’s focus was exclusively on a multi-level class in a very small New Zealand rural primary school. This phenomenological study investigated nine Year 4 – 6 students’ experiences of Chemistry Outreach with a specific focus on students’ attitudes, engagement, use of scientific skills, and scientific language. Focus group interviews, videos, reflective writing and science book covers were analysed from the individual and social perspective using phenomenology and discourse analysis. The findings were examined in relation to the specific rural culture of these participants through the culturally responsive pedagogy outlined in Tātaiako: Cultural Competencies for Teachers of Māori Learners (Ministry of Education, 2011). The results revealed the individual journeys the students took, and in the process, exposed the multifaceted influences on their attitudes, engagement and thinking in science. The study highlights the importance of making science useful, relevant and meaningful for these rural students by incorporating their rural culture into the teaching and learning programme. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Undertaking a doctoral dissertation is not a solo effort and I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the help and support I have received over the past four years. I am especially indebted to my supervisor, Dr Steven Sexton, who has provided professional advice, guidance and direction. His prompt responses to my queries and feedback on my writing has helped to ease the demands and isolation I experienced being a full-time at-distance student as well as a full-time teaching school principal of a very small school. I very much appreciate his in-depth knowledge of the area of primary school science. I would also like to acknowledge the ongoing support and interest provided by Professor Jeff Smith, in particular his insightful feedback on my writing. This study would not have been possible without the willing participation of the rural school students, their parents, and the rural community members. Thank you so much for speaking so openly and honestly about your experiences. I would like to acknowledge Dr Dave Warren. Your enthusiasm, friendliness, sense of fun, and unfailing commitment to the Chemistry Outreach programme really brought science alive for the students. A very special thanks to the university students who visited as part of the Chemistry Outreach team, in particular, Dan and Jeff, and Trudy Geoghegan and her team, Cleo Davie- Martin and Katy Orr who worked with the students on their community investigations. You are all inspirational role models. To my present school, Taieri Beach School, a heartfelt thank you for allowing me to accept my 7 months study leave in 2015 to complete the writing of this study. I would like to thank the Remote Services Library Staff at the University of Otago for their bibliographic expertise in tracking down all the references I requested and forwarding them to me so quickly. iv To my special mother-in-law for her unfailing interest and words of encouragement, thank you so much. Most importantly, I would like to thank my loving and understanding husband for his patience, encouragement, and unconditional support. You have been my pillar of strength and support over the years and you never gave up believing in me. Without you this thesis would not have been started, let alone finished. Thank you so much for giving me the time and space to follow my hopes and dreams. I love you dearly. v Table of Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents vi List of Tables x List of Appendices x Chapter 1 Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Science in the twenty first century 1 1.1.1 Science education for the twenty first century 2 1.1.2 Science curriculum 4 1.1.3 Science education: An international perspective 5 1.1.4 Science education: New Zealand perspective 7 1.1.5 Science education in New Zealand rural schools 11 1.2 Context 13 1.2.1 Rural school context 13 1.2.2 Chemistry Outreach 14 1.3 The study 15 1.4 Outline of thesis 19 Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.0 Introduction 21 2.1 Attitude 22 2.1.1 Definition 23 2.1.2 Attitude measures 25 2.1.3 Research findings 29 2.1.4 Evaluation of the literature - What research is missing? 33 2.2 Engagement 33 2.2.1 Definition 35 2.2.2 Engagement measures 38 2.2.3 Research findings 40 2.2.4 Evaluation of the literature - What research is missing? 45 2.3 Scientific Skills 46 2.3.1 Definition 47 2.3.2 Scientific skills measures 49 2.3.3 Research findings 51 2.3.4 Evaluation of the literature - What research is missing? 59 2.4 Scientific Language 60 2.4.1 Definition 61 2.4.2 Scientific language measures 65 2.4.3 Research findings 66 2.4.4 Evaluation of the literature - What research is missing? 75 2.5 Conclusion 77 Chapter 3 Methodology 3.0 Introduction 79 3.1 Research paradigm 79 3.1.1 Qualitative research 80 vi 3.1.2 Phenomenological methodology 81 3.1.3 Culturally responsive pedagogy 83 3.2 Educational research in rural settings 84 3.3 Chemistry Outreach programme 85 3.4 The research process 86 3.4.1 Researcher position 87 3.4.2 Selection of participants 88 3.4.2.1 Selection of student participants 89 3.4.2.2 Selection of adult participants 89 3.4.3 Data gathering 90 3.4.3.1 Data gathering with students 92 3.4.3.2 Data gathering with adults 95 3.4.3.3 Recording interviews 95 3.4.3.4 Transcription 96 3.4.3.5 Member checking 97 3.4.4 Data analysis 97 3.4.4.1 Phenomenological analysis 98 3.4.4.2 Discourse analysis 99 3.4.5 Ethical considerations 101 3.4.5.1 Informed consent 101 3.4.5.1.1 Informed consent with children 102 3.4.5.1.2 Informed consent for adults 104 3.4.5.2 Power relations 104 3.4.5.2.1 Power relations with children 104 3.4.5.2.2 Power relations with adults 108 3.4.5.3 Confidentiality 108 3.4.5.3.1 Student confidentiality 109 3.4.5.3.2 Adult confidentiality 109 3.5 Summary 110 Chapter 4 Attitude and Engagement 4.0 Introduction 111 4.1 Attitude 112 4.1.1 Emotional connectedness 113 4.1.1.1 Locking in already positive attitudes 114 4.1.1.2 Positivity tinged with reservations 115 4.1.1.3 Journeying to positivity 117 4.1.1.4 Underlying influences 119 4.1.2 Relational connectedness 122 4.1.2.1 Interpersonal connectedness 122 4.1.2.2 Trust 125 4.1.2.3 Humour 127 4.1.3 Discussion of attitude results 129 4.2 Engagement 134 4.2.1 Task engagement 135 4.2.1.1 Group A Jelly crystal activity 136 4.2.1.2 Group B Jelly crystal activity 139 4.2.1.3 Group C Jelly crystal activity 143 4.2.1.4 Magnesium tape experiments 145 vii 4.2.1.4.1 Group A Magnesium tape experiment 145 4.2.1.4.2 Group B Magnesium tape experiment 147 4.2.1.4.2 Group C Magnesium tape experiment 148 4.2.2 Science education engagement 151 4.2.2.1 Present engagement with school science 151 4.2.2.1.1Scientists’ expertise 152 4.2.2.1.2 Authenticity of programme 152 4.2.2.1.3 Student participation 153 4.2.2.2 Long-term engagement with school science 155 4.2.2.2.1 Definitely decided 156 4.2.2.2.2 On the way to being decided 156 4.2.2.2.3 Undecided 157 4.3 Discussion of engagement results 159 Chapter 5 Scientific Skills and Language 5.0 Introduction 164 5.1 Scientific skills 164 5.1.1 Self-reports of scientific skills usage 165 5.1.1.1 None to some 166 5.1.1.2 General to the precise 169 5.1.1.3 Passive to active participation 172 5.1.1.4 Thinking scientifically 175 5.1.1.4.1 Collection of data 176 5.1.1.4.2 Data handling 177 5.1.1.4.3 Communication and data interpretation 178 5.1.2 Science skills within the social context 179 5.1.2.1 Group A Jelly crystal activity 179 5.1.2.2 Group B: Jelly crystal activity 181 5.1.2.3 Group C: Jelly crystal activity 182 5.1.2.4 Group A: Magnesium tape experiment 183 5.1.2.5 Group B Magnesium tape experiment 186 5.1.2.6 Group C Magnesium tape experiment 188 5.1.2.7 Underlying influences 191 5.1.3.