Forging Bonds With Women, Nature and The Third World: An Ecofeminist Critique of International Relations By Anupam Pandey A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Department of Political Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario Canada © A. Pandey 2006 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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Abstract This research focuses on the specific issue of poverty and suffering in the Third World and the reasons for its neglect in IR, despite the fact that it impacts the lives of such a large number of people. It is in this context of tremendous under-representation in theory and repression in practice and the two actively reinforcing each other that this thesis aims at developing a critique of IR using an ecofeminist perspective. Ecofeminism and IR seem, at first observation, rather disparate fields, far removed from each other. However, this thesis aims at building a bridge between the two by showing that ecofeminism has a significant contribution to make to the discipline. Thus, the aim of this thesis is two-fold: first, to highlight the abandonment of the Third World in IR and examine its reasons and impact on the former as well as the latter; second, to demonstrate that ecofeminism can be seen as a radical and critical approach to IR and thus intensify the existing feminist critique of the discipline. The exercise of power or its study cannot be one-way; if power is all-pervasive, so is resistance. Thus, the Third World is not entirely without recourse to action. In light of this Foucauldian notion of power, a materialist ecofeminism serves as the seed of resistance in the context of the naked hegemony exercised by the dominant states in the discipline of IR and in terms of the political, military and economic control in relations between nations. Moreover, as mentioned earlier, ecofeminism serves as the key tool to developing a deeper understanding of exploitation and repression in all its forms, including its manifestation in the theory and practice of IR. Above all, it attempts to provide an alternative to the existing world-view, norms and practices that are associated with existing approaches in IR. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The acknowledgements I mention here are small but true. Their greatest contribution to this thesis but moreover, to my life, (and I hope, shall continue to be so), is to keep me small but true. I am entirely in the debt of the women of Garhwal who welcomed me into their hearths and their hearts without a hint of pre-judgment or prejudice. In it lay a practical lesson for me in my quest to “forge bonds with distant strangers”. It is to their countless hopes, aspirations and dreams of a better tomorrow that this thesis is dedicated. There is one person without whom this thesis would never have happened, or at least not in the shape and form as I now know it. It is to Fiona Robinson, my supervisor, that I owe the greatest gratitude. It is not possible to do justice to all of her qualities as a guide and all of my feelings of overwhelming gratitude as her disciple. Her foremost quality as a person and a teacher is her acute sensitivity to the needs of others and her ability to be able to nurture and bring out the best in them. Her kindness, gentleness and patience in her dealings with others reflect her “ethics of care” philosophy. As a supervisor, she was always a step ahead of me and constantly cleared the obstacles in my path. If I could imbibe even some of her virtues, I would be a much better human being. I am grateful to Professor Simon Dalby for his insightful comments and encouragement. He distinguishes himself as much with his deeply critical thought and monumental work as with his humility. Professor Farhang Rajaee’s gentle criticism served the most useful purpose of keeping me on my toes and indulging in constant introspection. His advice on the final draft gave the thesis much clearer direction and a sharper focus. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. My friends Rick, Sandy, Devrim, Elisabeth and Mamta in Ottawa welcomed me into their world with open arms and I am much the richer for their presence in my life. Rahul’s friendship is something I have come to take for granted because he wouldn’t want it any other way. In Kingston, my friends Joy, Todd, Bojana, Soni and Paritosh add immense color and comfort to my existence. It is not easy for me to put down in words what I owe these and countless other friends, but suffice it to say that they overwhelm me with their love. They have asked for so little and given me so much that it would take me many births to reverse the score. Finally, despite strong protests, the acknowledgements cannot be complete without mentioning “The Guru” - the one who prefers to go unnamed and most certainly unthanked because thanking him would be to put him in the same category as all others, which would indeed do a great disservice to my relationship with him. I must point out that though he thinks that his greatest contribution to my thesis was his most “candid” criticism, I regard his outrageous, hilarious, no-holds barred comedy as the greatest gift in my life. It is here that I actually do run out of words because words can say only so much. iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Chapter I: The ‘Periphery’ Looks On From The Periphery: The Third World in IR 1 Chapter II: Towards A Materialist Ecofeminism 38 Chapter III: Epistemology and Ethics in IR: Orthodox and Ecofeminist Approaches 92 Chapter IV: Post-modernism and Post-colonialism in IR 147 Chapter V: Resistances and Reconstruction: Work, Women and War in the Garhwal Himalayas 201 Conclusion 263 Appendix: Script of Questionnaire 273 Reference List 275 v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 1 The ‘Periphery’ Looks on from the Periphery: The Third World in IR “A// these theories, yet the bodies keep piling up”} - Marysia Zalewski (1996:340). Zalewski’s observation is a pithy summation of the guiding thoughts behind this thesis. The discipline of IR seems to be burgeoning with theories and sub-fields, varying in terms of influence and approach, but ever-increasing in number. However, even a cursory look at the state of humankind across the planet would point to the most limited success that has been achieved by these theories in terms of avoiding loss of life or making life better, in other words, having achieved any sort of human emancipation. What is obvious instead is the increase in numbers of the dead (due to unnatural causes) and the dying. The “bodies” that “keep piling up” though gross in number, are merely an indicator of the multitudes of those whose existence is on the margins of life and in the shadow of death. Such imperiled human existence due to absolute lack of material security is particular to certain parts of the world, namely the Third World, rather than evenly distributed throughout the globe. It is in this context of forgotten existences of human lives, geographies and histories that this thesis seeks to examine the overall apathy of IR to the conditions of human immiseration endemic in the Third World. The suffering of the Third World due to such a risky existence and grinding poverty is so pervasive and so intense that it calls for the most immediate and urgent attention.