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All RAND mono- graphs undergo rigorous peer review to ensure high standards for research quality and objectivity. $IBMMFOHFTJO 7JSUVBM$PMMBCPSBUJPO 7JEFPDPOGFSFODJOH "VEJPDPOGFSFODJOH BOE $PNQVUFS.FEJBUFE$PNNVOJDBUJPOT -ZOOF8BJOGBO 1BVM,%BWJT 0REPAREDFORTHE5NITED3TATES!IR&ORCE !PPROVEDFORPUBLICRELEASEDISTRIBUTIONUNLIMITED 4HERESEARCHDESCRIBEDINTHISREPORTWASCONDUCTEDINTHE2!.$ .ATIONAL$EFENSE2ESEARCH)NSTITUTE AFEDERALLYFUNDEDRESEARCHAND DEVELOPMENTCENTERSUPPORTEDBYTHE/FFICEOFTHE3ECRETARYOF$EFENSE THE*OINT3TAFF THEUNIFIEDCOMMANDS ANDTHEDEFENSEAGENCIESUNDER #ONTRACT$!37 # ,IBRARYOF#ONGRESS#ATALOGING IN 0UBLICATION$ATA 7AINFAN ,YNNE #HALLENGESINVIRTUALCOLLABORATIONVIDEOCONFERENCING AUDIOCONFERENCING AND COMPUTER MEDIATEDCOMMUNICATIONS,YNNE7AINFANAND0AUL+$AVIS PCM h-' v )NCLUDESBIBLIOGRAPHICALREFERENCES )3". 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It discusses the effects of the medium of collaboration (face-to-face, videoconferencing, audio- conferencing, or computer-mediated conferencing) on group pro- cesses and outcomes. Questions or comments are welcome and should be addressed to the authors at the RAND Corporation’s Santa Monica, CA, office: Paul K. Davis, project leader ([email protected]) Lynne Wainfan, principal author ([email protected]) The research was performed in the Acquisition and Tech- nology Policy Center of RAND’s National Defense Research Insti- tute (NDRI), a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) serving the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Staff, the unified commands, and the defense agencies. For more information on the Acquisition and Technology Pol- icy Center, contact its director, Philip Anton (Philip_Anton@rand. org), at RAND’s Santa Monica office. More information about RAND is available at www.rand.org. iii Contents Preface ...................................................................... iii Figures ......................................................................vii Tables....................................................................... ix Summary ................................................................... xi Acknowledgments......................................................... xix Acronyms.................................................................. xxi CHAPTER ONE Introduction.................................................................1 Background ..................................................................1 Objectives of This Report....................................................2 Approach.....................................................................3 CHAPTER TWO Definitions and Methodology .............................................4 Videoconferencing, Audioconferencing, and Computer-Mediated Communication .......................................................4 Relating the Types of Mediated Communications ..........................5 Reconciling Findings Over a Period of Technological Change..............6 An Initial Difficulty of Methodology .....................................6 Defining the Medium by the Form of Interpersonal Feedback ..........7 Case-by-Case Assessment of Older Research .............................8 Methodology for Using Our Results......................................9 Search and Synthesis Methods...............................................9 Defining Our Scope: Interdisciplinary, but Limited .....................9 Search Methods Used ................................................... 10 v vi Challenges in Virtual Collaboration Organizing the Results.................................................. 11 Synthesizing Strategies .................................................. 12 CHAPTER THREE Virtual Versus Face-to-Face Collaboration: A Survey of the Literature ............................................................. 13 A Framework for Reporting Effects........................................ 13 Contextual Differences Between Face-to-Face and Mediated Collaboration ........................................................ 14 Process Differences Between Face-to-Face and Virtual Collaborations ... 19 Videoconferencing ...................................................... 19 Audioconferencing ...................................................... 23 Computer-Mediated Communication.................................. 25 Outcome Differences Between Face-to-Face and Virtual Collaborations ....................................................... 31 Videoconference ........................................................ 31 Audioconference ........................................................ 34 Computer-Mediated Communication.................................. 39 Summary................................................................... 59 CHAPTER FOUR Mitigating Problems and Exploiting the Benefits of Mediated Communication ...................................................... 65 Broad Observations ........................................................ 65 Tactics for Mitigating Problems ........................................... 65 A Strategy for Choosing the Best Medium for Virtual Collaboration..... 71 CHAPTER FIVE Where Next? .............................................................. 75 Keeping Up with Technology ............................................. 75 Developing Better Conceptual Models .................................... 76 Research Needed........................................................... 77 Training Needed........................................................... 78 Opportunities .............................................................. 79 Bibliography .............................................................. 81 Figures S.1. Strategy for Selecting the Best Medium for Virtual Collaboration ..................................................... xvi 2.1. Placement of Communication Media, by Synchronization and Cues ............................................................5 2.2. Mapping of Modern Hybrid Mediated-Communication Types into the “Archetypes” of VC, AC, and CMC ...............8 3.1. Framework for Factors Affecting the Work Flow in Groups ..... 15 3.2. Task Types ........................................................ 18 3.3. Results of Morley and Stephenson and Short, Williams, and Christie............................................................ 37 3.4. Local Coalition Effects in Different Collaborative Modes........ 46 3.5. Progression Toward Risky or Extreme Decisions in CMC....... 54 4.1. Notional Relationships Among Types of Communication....... 66 4.2. Strategy for Selecting the Best Medium for Virtual Collaboration ..................................................... 72 vii Tables 2.1. Characterization of VC, AC, and CMC ............................4 2.2. Summary of Literature Search Methodology ..................... 11 3.1. Factors Contributing to Groupthink and Our Speculation on CMC Effects .................................................. 55 3.2. Summary of Research Findings ................................... 63 ix Summary Purpose Virtual collaborations are collaborations in which the people working together are interdependent in their tasks, share responsibility for outcomes, are geographically dispersed, and rely on mediated, rather