London School of Economics and Political Science Grand Aims and Modest Means: The Parallel Evolution of US and South African Foreign Policies Towards Africa in the 1990s Brian Joseph Hesse Thesis submitted to the University of London in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations UMI Number: U615584 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615584 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 7 S F 7773 i ^ 0 e Xg;/C^ i 7 7 3 A- >5 17 ABSTRACT The United States is a global superpower at the heart of the international system; South Africa is a regional hegemon on a peripheral continent. Yet, despite the US and South Africa’s disparate positions in the international order, this thesis illustrates that the foreign policies of each towards Africa in the 1990s evolved in parallel fashion through four comparable periods, ultimately becoming strikingly similar near the end of the decade. A central feature of this parallel evolution, and eventual congruence, was the correlation between ‘grand aims’ and ‘modest means’. ‘Grand aims’ refers to the overarching tenets and doctrines that prevailed in US and South African foreign policies towards Africa. During the Cold War and apartheid eras (roughly from the 1950s until 1990), only two predominated (i.e., containment and security). In the 1990s, there were no less than ten. As noted above, such dynamism (over a comparably short period of less than a decade) was tied to the presence of ‘modest means’ -- that is, the limited availability or limited utilisation of resources. In sum, the study argues that when modest means were imposed upon US and South African foreign policy makers, they were oftenforced to devise new grand aims. Yet even when modest means were willingly employed, this too resulted in the articulation of new grand aims, as actions and ends were made to correspond. In both cases, new foreign policy periods emerged as attention, efforts, and resources were re-prioritised. Modest means, therefore, were a force that not only shaped, but drove, the four-period parallel evolution of US and South African foreign policies towards Africa in the 1990s. CONTENTS Abstract Contents Acknowledgements Acronyms Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 OVERVIEW: STASIS Stasis Preview............................................................................................................................12 Chapter One: An Anti-communist Crusade .............................................................................13 Chapter Two: Security, the Gun, and the Maize Train ..........................................................36 PERIOD ONE: OBSOLESCENCE Obsolescence Preview.............................................................................................................. 60 Chapter Three: Africa Descendant ...........................................................................................61 Chapter Four: Transitions to Duality ...................................................................................... 84 Obsolescence Summary..........................................................................................................102 PERIOD TWO: FLUX Flux Preview............................................................................................................................105 Chapter Five: A New World Embraced, A New World Alienates........................................ 107 Chapter Six: High Expectations Meet Harsh Realities.........................................................134 Flux Summary.........................................................................................................................156 PERIOD THREE: FOCUS Focus Preview ......................................................................................................................... 161 Chapter Seven: Of Bad Neighbourhoods and Big Emerging Markets ................................. 163 Chapter Eight: Coming to Terms With Self and Situation .................................................... 190 Focus Summary ...................................................................................................................... 214 PERIOD FOUR: COALESCENCE Coalescence Preview .............................................................................................................. 220 Chapter Nine: Liberal Economics Preponderant..................................................................222 Coalescence Summary............................................................................................................261 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................ 268 Epilogue: ................................................................................................................................ 290 Bibliography.......................................................................................................................... 292 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In writing this thesis, I have incurred a debt of gratitude to many. First and foremost, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the British Government and the Marshall Aid Commemoration Commission. In awarding me the Marshall Scholarship, the Government and Commission have enabled me, over the past three years, to associate with some the most exceptional individuals anywhere, and to have many positive experiences (too numerous to mention here). The Marshall programme is a testament to, and encompasses much of, what is positive about British-American relations. Of course many of the programme-related associations and experiences do not just ‘happen’. It takes ability, commitment, and hard work. Accordingly, a very special commendation should be given to Catherine Reive, Assistant Secretary for the Marshall Aid Commemoration Commission. The few words here do not do justice to her efforts on Marshall Scholars’ behalf. Next, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor James Mayall. It was a privilege to benefit from his immense knowledge of international relations generally, and Africa specifically, and a real pleasure to interact with him. His love of learning, adeptness in teaching, and sincere interest in the individual as much as the individual’s topic are qualities to be emulated. Thanks also needs to be given to those who provided constructive and thought-provoking feedback and/or comments: the members of the Africa Workshops in the Department of International Relations, London School of Economics (LSE); the Departmental Research Panels; the ‘round-table debaters’ at Jimmy’s Bar; the ‘impromptu debaters’ of D708; Matt, Jamie, and Elisa in London House; and Gary and Nancy at Main Camp. Additionally, for helping with source materials and interviews, I would like to thank the fine folks at the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House, London), the South African Institute of International Affairs (Jan Smuts House, Johannesburg), the Department of International Relations at the University of Witwatersrand, and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. And I would be neglect if I did not thank the teachers, mentors, and friends who, before the LSE, lent a supportive and inspirational hand in my academic development (whether at Paxico, Wabuansee High, or Kansas State University); here, Nancy Twiss, Aruna Michie, Bill Richter, Buddy Gray, Jerry Reeck, George Keiser, Carol Peak, the entire Community Service Programme family, and Dan Wagner deserve special mention. Outside of academia, I would like to thank: my Mom and Dad (Karen and Leroy), and sisters (Kim and Vicky) for standing with me through thick and thin; Mzee Shetani and Mama Makora for sharing a passion for all that is Africa; the LSE basketball guys for the comradery; Annie and Catherine for the fresh air and open spaces around Gam Fach; Vic and Ted, Jen and Dana, and Marie and Viren for the culinary and conversational delights; Derek for the ‘Moon-luck moments’ which make life interesting; Matt for the pints, snooker, and kebabs; Bobby for the endless laughs; and Kim for the haven in Earl’s Court — to all, for all (both mentioned and unmentioned), you have my warmest appreciation. However, I save my deepest thanks and love for Karen, who makes so much possible. I am truly blessed to have her as my best friend in life, for life. ACRONYMS ACRF African Crisis Response Force ACRI African Crisis Response Initiative AGOA Africa Growth and Opportunity Act Aids Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANC African National Congress ARMSCOR Armament Corporation of South Africa (Ltd.) BEMs Big Emerging Markets BLSN Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia CAAA Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act CONSAS Constellation of Southern African States COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions DBS A Development Bank of Southern Africa