New perennial grains in African smallholder agriculture from a farming systems perspective. A review Ellinor Isgren, Elina Andersson, Wim Carton To cite this version: Ellinor Isgren, Elina Andersson, Wim Carton. New perennial grains in African smallholder agriculture from a farming systems perspective. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Springer Verlag/EDP Sciences/INRA, 2020, 40 (1), pp.6. 10.1007/s13593-020-0609-8. hal-03148160 HAL Id: hal-03148160 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03148160 Submitted on 22 Feb 2021 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (2020) 40: 6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-0609-8 REVIEW ARTICLE New perennial grains in African smallholder agriculture from a farming systems perspective. A review Ellinor Isgren1 & Elina Andersson1 & Wim Carton1 Accepted: 20 January 2020 /Published online: 18 February 2020 # The Author(s) 2020 Abstract Perennial grain crops are gaining increased attention from researchers as one possible solution to agriculture’s many sustainability challenges. In the Sub-Saharan African context, perennial varieties of crops such as sorghum, rice, and pigeon pea have potential to provide numerous benefits for smallholder farmers. The introduction and adoption of new crops and practices is however a complex process that needs to be approached from an interdisciplinary and participatory perspective. We here review the small but growing body of knowledge about on-farm adoption and the use of perennial grains around the world, as well as the more extensive literature of farming systems research. We conclude that a farming systems approach offers a fruitful entry point for informing the emerging research agenda around perennial grains in African smallholder agriculture. Yet, a comprehensive understanding of the potentials and challenges of perennial grains also requires cross-scalar analysis capable of looking beyond the farming system. We thus outline five key considerations for developing and studying new perennial grains in smallholder contexts, i.e., (1) smallholder farming systems are complex, diverse, and locally adapted; (2) decision-making is shaped by various resource constraints; (3) farming is often “semi- subsistence” and forms part of broader livelihood strategies, wherein risk is an important factor; (4) gender relations and roles influence many aspects of smallholder farming systems; and (5) analyses of farmers’ production systems, decision-making, and livelihood strategies must be embedded within a broader political-economic context. Based on these considerations, we suggest directions and examples of key questions for future research and derive methodological implications for how such research could be approached. Keywords Perennial crops . Farming systems . Smallholders . Technology adoption . Sub-Saharan Africa . Sorghum . Pigeon pea . Rice . Sustainability Contents 4.1.2 Smallholders’ resource endowments are highly 1. Introduction diverse, including at the local and intra- 2. Methodology household level 3. On-farm adoption and experiences of perennial grains: 4.1.3 Farming is often “semi-subsistence,”, and fre- Preliminary insights from around the world quently forms part of broader livelihood strat- 4. Perennial grains and African smallholder agriculture: egies wherein risk is an important decision- Drawing lessons from farming systems research making variable 4.1 What characterizes smallholder farming systems, 4.1.4 Gender relations and roles influence many as- and what are the implications for perennial grains? pects of smallholder farming systems. 4.1.1 Smallholder farming systems are complex, di- 4.2 Beyond the farming system: the need for multi- verse, and locally adapted scale analysis and critical perspectives 5. Synthesis: implications for perennial crop research 6. Conclusions References * Ellinor Isgren 1 Introduction [email protected] A transition to perennial agriculture has been proposed as a 1 Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies, Lund, Sweden viable pathway towards sustainable food production systems 6 Page 2 of 14 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2020) 40: 6 (Jackson 2002; Cox et al. 2006). Compared with annual crops, well-known problems of traditional “technology transfer” deep-rooted perennials improve soil structure and contribute models of agricultural development, in which farmers’ sys- to soil and water conservation, decrease vulnerability to temic perspectives and contextual factors are considered much drought, and dramatically reduce the need for tilling, weeding, too late (Chambers and Jiggins 1987). This is particularly and use of external inputs. Because this simultaneously con- important as perennial grains can be considered an example tributes to climate adaptation and mitigation, and enhances of a “transformative technology,” i.e., an innovation that fun- biodiversity and ecosystem functions across farming land- damentally differs from conventional agriculture in its “archi- scapes, perennial crops and cropping systems could help ad- tecture, functionality, component principles and underlying dress some of agriculture’s most pressing challenges (Crews science” (Adebiyi et al. 2016:102). et al. 2018). Particularly since the 1980s, significant efforts For several decades, questions surrounding uptake, use, have gone into the development of new crops that could help and impacts of new technology in smallholder agriculture achieve this vision. In recent years, rapid progress has been have been fruitfully studied through the lens of “farming sys- made in the development of perennial alternatives to impor- tems,” under rubrics such as “farming systems research.” The tant staple crops such as wheat and rice (Cox 2014). purpose of this article is to draw key insights from this re- The benefits of this bold agricultural vision could be par- search area to inform the emerging research agenda around ticularly significant for developing countries. Scholars have perennial grains in Sub-Saharan African smallholder agricul- highlighted the potential of perennial grains to help achieve ture, in terms of pivotal questions and promising methodolog- “sustainable intensification” of smallholder agriculture in ical approaches. This leads us to highlight the importance of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA); that is, “increasing crop produc- participatory design, monitoring, and evaluation of on-farm tion per unit area and enhancing environmental, economic, trials, detailed empirical investigations of the compatibility and social sustainability” (Reganold 2013:256). Peter et al. of such crops with smallholders’ existing agricultural systems, (2017:283) for example, argue that perennial grains “offer farming practices, and overall livelihood strategies. Attention smallholder farmers of marginal lands a sustainable solution to (often gendered) heterogeneity in regard to access to, and for enhancing resilience and minimizing risk in confronting control over, various assets is critical in this. Finally, we con- global change, while mitigating social and edaphic drivers of sider complementary perspectives which a farming systems low and variable production.” A recent review of perennial approach is prone to neglect—most importantly, broader grains in the African context therefore urges agronomists to political-economic forces that shape agricultural change all “broaden their view beyond an annual-centric one, and con- the way down to the farm level. Our focus lies on grain crops sider investing in the perennial grain pipedream” (Snapp et al. which are currently grown as annuals but for which perennial 2018). Glover et al. (2012) meanwhile see investments in the counterparts are being developed—or in some cases (like pi- research-and-development of perennial grains as an integral geon pea (Cajanus cajan) Fig. 1), existing perennial crops that part of a much broader push towards the “perenniation” of are most often grown as annuals. While this focus excludes African cropping systems, including more investments in ag- established perennials like tree crops, one could reasonably roforestry. This effort is still in its infancy; so far, research on expect these insights to be relevant to perenniation efforts perennial grains for smallholder contexts has primarily fo- more generally. cused on improving crop yield and quality through plant breeding, and proposed crops such as perennial sorghum (Sorghum bicolor × Sorghum halepense)andrice(Oryza 2Methodology sativa × Oryza longistaminata)(Fig.1) remain experimental or maladapted to various African conditions. This article builds on a literature review conducted in two Realizing the promises of perennial grains will require stages. First, we systematically reviewed literature on peren- more than just investments in crop improvement. New crops nial grain agriculture to assess the current state of knowledge and cropping systems must be developed with regard for about factors and conditions affecting adoption of new peren- farmers’ motivations to adopt perennials, their