Sean Feit Oakes, PhD | SeanFeitOakes.com | 2017 Introductory Notes on the Relationship Between Buddhist and Hindu Yogas Sean Feit Oakes, PhD One of the many ways Insight Meditation (IM) has evolved away from its roots in Southeast Asian Theravāda Buddhism is in its embrace of yoga as a valuable adjunct to the vipassanā that forms the heart of its practice system. The yoga most common in the West, known by some scholars as “Modern Postural Yoga” (MPY) to highlight both its physical emphasis and its recent provenance, is a substantial part of the practice regimen of many IM practitioners, but holds an ambiguous role in the formal system of IM practice.1 Yoga, most often in a gentle style of posture (āsana) practice, is offered both in classes and via dedicated space for practice, at many IM centers, but is rarely spoken of in dharma talks, included in the progression of instructions that forms the basis of retreat practice, or included in the collection of primarily Buddhist doctrines that are emphasized and repeated. The reasons for this ambiguity are historical and doctrinal, reflecting the cultural identity of modern practitioners as much as the imagined historical separation of the traditions. Materials from historically more distant traditions, after all, like poems from Rumi, Mary Oliver, or T.S. Eliot, bring Muslim and Christian influences into the room, but are commonly used. Another commonly used source, Japanese Zen, while seemingly related to Theravāda by its Buddhist-ness, is historically and in some ways doctrinally just as distant from Theravāda as most forms of modern Hinduism. As Insight Meditation and yoga practices are interwoven more and more in the bodies of practitioners, I offer this essay as a step toward clarify the relationship between the forms in order to offer a mandala of practices that serves the needs of modern seekers without adding confusion or cognitive dissonance. This inquiry touches on several interwoven topics, which I broadly divide into history, doctrine, and practice. The historical roots are relevant because some of the contemporary separation arises from ideas about the origins of the various Asian contemplative traditions, a history which reveals more overlap than is often suggested. Further, in addition to the ancient connection between the disciplines, both were substantially reinvented in the 20th century by teachers influenced by European (primarily British) colonial culture, adding ambiguity to our ideas about their provenance and histories. Perhaps the most-cited difference between Yoga 1 For background on MPY and recent research on what is also now called “transnational yoga”, see the research coming out of the Modern Yoga Research group, and their Hatha Yoga Project: modernyogaresearch.org. The best known texts from this valuable body of work are Elizabeth De Michelis, A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism (NY: Continuum, 2005). and Mark Singleton, Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice (London: Oxford, 2010). 1 Sean Feit Oakes, PhD | SeanFeitOakes.com | 2017 and Buddhism is not based in history, however, but in doctrine, particularly ideas about the nature or existence of the “self” (attā/ātman), and the related question of the nature or existence of a personal divinity.2 Without understanding the subtlety of the ancient philosophical debate, contemporary practitioners may think there is an absolute gulf between the traditions where in fact there is a broad range of positions on these questions even within Buddhism, and broad agreement between the ancient founders of Buddhism and their proto-Hindu contemporaries on many fundamental aspects of the core existential problem. Lastly, for many contemporary practitioners, both history and doctrine are secondary to personal practice experience, where yoga postures, breath, and movement practices may blend easily with Buddhist meditation, mindfulness, and loving-kindness practices as we understand them. Understanding the many kinds of practice as related contemplative processes, I refer in the plural to “Buddhist and Hindu Yogas” as a way to unbind the word “yoga” from its association as strictly a Hindu referent and use the word more accurately to both its history and current manifestations as practice.3 After a few notes on each of these topics, sketching areas for further exploration, I will suggest some ways to further integrate these ancient sibling traditions. History While “yoga” is mostly thought of in relation to Hindu practice now, as a word for contemplative discipline it has long been used in Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain traditions, as well as non-South Asian-originated traditions like Islam.4 South Asian contemplative discipline began to be formalized around the time of the Buddha (c. 485-405 BCE), when Seekers (samaṇa/śramana) left the new cities of the Gangetic plain to live in the wilderness in a quest for Liberation, called variously mokṣa (S), nibbana/nirvāṇa, or kaivalya (S), from a seemingly endless round of birth and death (saṃsāra). These early practitioner-philosophers developed complex analyses of perception, consciousness, and Action (kamma/karma) to explain the predicament of suffering that seems to haunt all living 2 When using Pāli or Sanskrit doctrinal words, I will put them in parentheses in this order: Pāli/Sanskrit. When just one word is given it is either the same in both languages (like sangha) or labelled “P” or “S”. Doctrinal words used more than once are labeled on their first instance, and those that have entered the English lexicon within our communities, like vipassanā and mettā, are left untranslated, with diacritics. English translations of technical terms are capitalized. 3 The word “Hindu” began to be used in the 15th century by the Persians to refer to their southern neighbors, following which it was used in self-reference by some residents of the subcontinent, and then solidified by the British as a convenient general marker for their colonial subjects. For an exploration of its ambiguity as a religious, philosophical, or ethnic label, see iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/. Systems like Saṃkhya, Yoga, Vedānta, and the Vedic tradition that preceded them, all claimed in retrospect by later Hindu writers, may be considered “proto-Hindu.” 4 I use the geographical label “South Asian” as opposed to the geopolitical “Indian” for events that precede the use of the word “India,” which began in the 15th century as a Persian attribution referring to the inhabitants of the Indus River basin. 2 Sean Feit Oakes, PhD | SeanFeitOakes.com | 2017 beings, and proposed a variety of pathways to its end. Similar conceptions of the world and suffering were shared by many of the śramana sects, including those that came to be known as Buddhism, Jainism, Saṃkhya, Yoga, and Vedānta, among many others, and their solutions to it were largely variations on a similar theme: renunciation, asceticism, sensory seclusion, and meditative inquiry leading to equanimity around changing experience. All of these lineages were part of the same cultural movement, engaging in vigorous debate and sharing patrons, and only later diverged into what we think of as separate “religions.” The earliest surviving texts to describe individual paths to Liberation are the Sanskrit Upaniṣads, particularly the Kaṭha Upaniṣad, and the Pāli discourses of the Buddha. The Kaṭha uses some Buddhist terminology, but scholars disagree around whether it precedes or follows the texts of the Pāli Canon, which are dated by the earliest written copies (c. 100 BCE) rather than by the dates of the historical Buddha. Whether the Buddha’s teaching influenced the writer(s) of the Kaṭha Upaniṣad or Upaniṣadic discourse influenced the Buddha, their relationship is close, and their contemplative practices strikingly similar.5 Out of these root sources, the schools of Saṃkhya (“Numbers”) and Yoga developed, both also influenced by Buddhist thought, taking their most well-known form in the Yoga-sūtra of Patañjali (YS) (c. 200 CE). The YS became the foundational text of “Yoga” as a distinct philosophical school, and has become the primary text of Modern Postural Yoga, even though the practice it emphasizes, meditative absorption, is not part of most contemporary yoga lineages. The Yoga-sūtra, though related to Saṃkhya and the teachings of the Upaniṣads, contains several teachings that have direct Buddhist counterparts, including the 4 brahmavihāra, the 5 Spiritual Faculties, and the central meditative practice: deep concentration (samādhi), leading to subtle powers (iddhi/siddhi), inquiry into the nature of experience, and Liberation through insight into selflessness. The sectarian identity of the Yoga-sūtra is in some ways unknown. Its philosophical stance, asserting the essential separation of Awareness (puruṣa) and Nature (prakṛti), is shared with Saṃkhya, but the sūtra itself is written not in Classical Sanskrit but in a variant called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, which along with other linguistic, doctrinal, and historical clues has lead some scholars to suggest that it may in fact be a Buddhist text.6 At the very heart of modern yoga, in other words, is a text that is either Buddhist or very Buddhist-flavored. 5 For a hypothesis that Gotama studied at the university at Taxila, where he would have been exposed to the early Upaniṣads, see Stephen Batchelor, Confession of a Buddhist Atheist (NY: Spiegel & Grau, 2010). 6 For the “Yoga Sutra is Buddhist” theory, see David Gordon White, The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography (Princeton: Princeton