Final Year Project Charting multilingualism in Singapore: From the nineteenth century to the present By TAN LiJia Gloria Supervised by Professor Kingsley Bolton 2014 Division of Linguistics and Multilingual Studies ii Declaration of Authorship I declare that this assignment is my own original work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined by the NTU policy on plagiarism. I have read the NTU Honour Code and Pledge. No part of this Final Year Project has been or is being concurrently submitted for any other qualification at any other university. I certify that the data collected for this project is authentic. I fully understand that falsification of data will result in the failure of the project and/or failure of the course. Name: Tan LiJia Gloria Signature: Date: 17th November 2014 iii Additional information 1. My FYP is an extension of my URECA project. Yes / No If yes, give details and state how is this project different from your URECA project: 2. My FYP is a part of or an extension of my supervisor’s project. Yes/No if yes, answer question 5. 3. My FYP is partially supported by my supervisor’s grant. Yes / No 4. Provide details of funding expenditure, (e.g. payment of participants: $10/hour; funded by supervisor’s grant…) 5. You are reminded that an FYP is an independent project on an area of your own interests. Any kind of outsourcing (including, but not limited to, transcription, statistical analysis, etc.) would have a huge negative impact on your grade. If your project is a part of or an extension of your supervisor’s project, please state clearly i) what are your own intellectual contributions, and ii) what components of your supervisor’s project have been borrowed for your FYP (e.g. software tools, audio/visual materials, etc.). If you have any doubts, please check with your supervisor and/or the FYP coordinator before submission. *Note that failure to declare may be treated as a case of plagiarism and it will impact negatively on the assessment of your FYP. iv Acknowledgement Four years in LMS has come down to this, and I am truly thankful for the opportunity to have been part of the LMS family. First and foremost, I am thankful and grateful for my supervising professor, Professor Kingsley Bolton, for always being a constant support throughout this FYP journey. Thank you for always taking the time to look through my report no matter how busy you are, and always giving me such constructive and encouraging feedback. It has been such a joy to be under your tutelage and I have learnt so much from you. Secondly, to my predecessor, Liyan, thank you for guiding me throughout this journey and teaching me the ropes to survive this FYP season. Thirdly, to my friends from LMS – Andre, Kubo, Firqin and Joan – thank you for the past seven semesters together. We have survived tonnes of assignments, test, quizzes, presentations and now, the FYP together! My time in LMS wouldn’t be half as fun if not for you guys, thanks for the memories. Last but not least, to Him who made this possible, Your providence and sustenance have helped me come this far. Pa & Ma, I’m done with school! ☺ v Table of contents 1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………..……… 1 2. Literature review …………………………………………………………...……... 2 2.1 Historical perspectives …………………………………………………... 2 2.2 Sociolinguistic perspectives on the linguistic history of Singapore ……... 3 2.2.1 Language education ………………………………..………...… 4 2.2.2 Educational perspectives and language policies …………...….. 4 2.3 Research on language censuses ………………………………………….. 5 3. Research issues ……………………………………………………………..………7 4. Methodology ……………………………………………………………………… 8 5. Results and data analysis ………………………………………………………… 10 5.1 Colonial censuses (1824-1957) ……………………………………….... 11 5.1.1 1824 to 1836 censuses ………………………………………... 11 5.1.2 The 1871 census …………………………………………….... 12 5.1.3 The 1881 census ……………………………………………… 14 5.1.4 The 1891 census ………………………………………..…….. 15 5.1.5 The 1901 census ……………………………………………… 17 5.1.6 The 1911 census ……………………………………………… 19 5.1.7 The 1921 census ……………………………………………… 21 5.1.8 The 1931 census ……………………………………………… 24 5.1.9 The 1947 census …………………………………..………….. 26 5.1.10 The 1957 census ………………………………………..…… 27 5.2 Post-colonial censuses (1970-2010) ……………………………………. 32 5.2.1 The 1970 census …………………………………………….... 33 5.2.2 The 1980 to 2010 censuses …………………………………… 34 vi 5.2.3 The racial composition of the population …………………… 34 5.2.4 Rise of official languages and literacy rates in Singapore …… 35 5.2.5 Rise in mother tongue literacy rates in each racial group ……. 36 5.2.6 Multi-language literacy in official languages…………………. 37 5.2.7 The shift of languages used in the home domains ………….... 38 6. Commentary ………………………………………………………………..……. 39 7. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..… 40 Notes ………………………………………………………………………………... 43 References ………………………………………………………………………….. 45 vii List of figures Figure 1: Map showing the Jackson 1828 map of Singapore, which outlines Raffles’ vision for Singapore town …………………………………………………………… 3 Figure 2: Map showing the territories of British Malaya …………………………... 11 Figure 3: Chart that shows the distribution of population by race in early Singapore from 1824 to 1836 ………………………………………………………………..… 12 Figure 4: Racial composition of Singapore according to the 1871 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………………..... 13 Figure 5: Racial composition of Singapore according to the 1881 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………………………………………. 14 Figure 6: Breakdown of the Chinese population according to the 1881 census of the Straits Settlements ……………………………………………………………..…… 15 Figure 7: Racial composition of Singapore according to the 1891 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………………………………………. 16 Figure 8: Breakdown of the Chinese population according to the 1891 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………..… 17 Figure 9: Breakdown of the Chinese population according to the 1901 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………….. 18 Figure 10: Composition of the Chinese population by tribe according to the 1921 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………………… 22 Figure 11: Composition of the Malay population by race according to the 1921 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………………………… 23 Figure 12: Composition of the Indian population by race according to the 1921 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………………………… 23 Figure 13: Percentage of total population of Singapore literate in Malay, by race according to the 1947 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………… 27 Figure 14: Composition of the Chinese population according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………..… 28 Figure 15: Composition of the Malay population according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………….. 28 Figure 16: Composition of the Indian and Pakistanis population according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………….... 29 viii Figure 17: Racial composition of the population from 1871 to 2010, based on census data …………………………………………………………………………………. 34 Figure 18: Percentage of population literate in English from 1921 to 2010 according to census data……………………………………………………………………….. 35 Figure 19: Percentage of each racial group literate in their designated mother tongue from 1957 to 2010 according to census data .............................................................. 36 Figure 20: Percentage of each racial group literate in two or more official languages according to census data ……………………………………………………………. 37 Figure 21: Languages spoken most frequently at home in 1980, 1990, 2000 and 2010 ………………………………………………………………………………………. 38 ix List of tables Table 1: Censuses of Singapore from 1824 to 1870 ……………………………….... 9 Table 2: Official censuses of Singapore from 1871 to 2010 ……………………….. 10 Table 3: Table showing the size of various Chinese speech communities according to the 1911 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………………. 19 Table 4: Table showing the size of the various Malay speech communities according to the 1911 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………….…… 20 Table 5: Table showing the size of the various Indian speech communities according to the 1911 census of the Straits Settlements …………………………………….… 21 Table 6: Table showing the percentage of Chinese population whose mother tongue is English or Mandarin according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………………………………. 30 Table 7: Table showing the percentage of Malay population whose mother tongue is English or Malay according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………………………………. 31 Table 8: Table showing the percentage of Indian population whose mother tongue is English or Tamil according to the 1957 census of the Straits Settlements ………………………………………………………………………………………. 32 Table 9: Literacy rates of population (citizens and non-citizens) according to the 1970 census of Singapore ………………………………………………………………… 33 Abstract This study sets out to chart multilingualism in Singapore from the nineteenth century to the present, with specific reference to the analysis of census reports from the early nineteenth century to 2010. This study first considers the sociolinguistic context of Singapore from a historical perspective, and then proceeds to identify and highlight a number of macro-sociolinguistic trends related to the development of multilingualism in Singapore. Such trends include patterns of language shift from vernacular