Driving to the Conditions i Driving to the Conditions: Driver Behaviour in Youths Liam Kettle (8143644) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand April 2020 Driving to the Conditions ii Abstract Young drivers under 25 years are overrepresented in road fatalities and serious injuries worldwide. Past studies have identified that being male and having higher levels of sensation seeking, risk-taking, and self-perceived skill contribute to riskier youth driving behaviours. However, evidence for these risk factors derives from research on driving behaviours in optimal weather conditions. The current study had two primary aims: (1) to examine how drivers adjust their average speed to suit the environmental condition and, (2) to examine the extent to which various, widely-used self-report measures (including the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire, Dula Dangerous Driving Index, Driver Skill Inventory, and Sensation Seeking) can predict average speed behaviour along Straight and Curve segments in sunny and foggy weather conditions. The reliability of performance measures in the simulator over time was also explored. Sixty-nine participants were administered the self- report measures (Phase One) and completed four experimental simulator drives across a further two sessions, conducted at least four days apart (Phase Two). These simulator drives required participants to navigate Straight and Curve tasks at varying speed limits (50 km/h, 80 km/h, and 100 km/h) under both sunny and foggy conditions. Results showed that average speed behaviour was reliable over time and participants reduced their speed in foggy conditions. Although known risk factors predicted average speed in sunny conditions, a different set of risk factors predicted driver behaviours when driving in poor visibility, thereby questioning the generalisability of risk factors contributing to dangerous driving across conditions. Furthermore, while sensation seeking explained variance in behaviours in optimal weather, mental lapses predicted faster average speeds in higher speed zones in foggy conditions. Overall, these findings indicate that when creating effective road safety strategies to reduce the likelihood of road fatalities and serious injuries in young drivers, multiple factors beyond the known risk factors should be considered. Driving to the Conditions iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I want to thank my supervisors, Dr. Vanessa Beanland and Dr. Rebecca Brookland. Vanessa, you have been a wonderful supervisor over these past couple of years and I am grateful for all the support, understanding, and patience you have shown in my time under your supervision. I am appreciative of you guiding me further down this incredible Human Factors pathway, making me aware of the amazing opportunities available and throwing me headfirst into a certain role. Rebecca, I thank you for your refreshing perspective and invaluable knowledge of transport research throughout this process. I wish you both the best in your future research. I would like to thank my incredible Mum. You have been a superstar keeping me on track and making sure I did not stray far from this path. Although you are many hundreds of miles away, your love, support, and the numerous Countdown grocery deliveries raised my spirits whenever I fell deep into the pits of stress. Though even more stress-inducing at times, I appreciate you keeping me on my toes, challenging scientific theory to make sure I kept questioning the world around me. I would also like to thank my family for their support over the years. What an amazing journey it is has been, and I guess it has only just begun! To my friends who listened to my rants and incoherent rambles, thank you for your patience. To those who ensured I took time to enjoy life outside of research, thank you for reminding me not to take life too seriously. To the other lab members (finally had more people in the lab than just me), thank you for your insights, help, and spontaneity to make the lab more interesting. There are too many people to thank but know I would not be here without the support you all have generously given. Driving to the Conditions iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 Driving to the Conditions: Driver Behaviour in Youths ......................................... 1 Measuring Driver Behaviour ............................................................................................. 3 Driver Behaviour Questionnaire .................................................................................... 3 Driver Skill Inventory .................................................................................................... 5 Dula Dangerous Driving Index ...................................................................................... 6 Sensation Seeking ......................................................................................................... 7 Limitations of Self-report Measures............................................................................... 8 Self-report Measures Summary ..................................................................................... 9 On-road Driving .......................................................................................................... 10 Driving Simulators ...................................................................................................... 12 Driving Simulators Summary ...................................................................................... 17 Risk Factors of Aberrant Driving..................................................................................... 17 Demographic Characteristics ....................................................................................... 18 Psychosocial factors .................................................................................................... 22 Environmental factors ................................................................................................. 26 Current Study .................................................................................................................. 27 Driving to the Conditions v Chapter 2 Method ............................................................................................................... 29 Design ............................................................................................................................. 29 Participants ..................................................................................................................... 29 Driving Simulator............................................................................................................ 30 Questionnaires................................................................................................................. 34 Demographics and Driving History ............................................................................. 34 Driver Behaviour Questionnaire .................................................................................. 34 Driver Skill Inventory .................................................................................................. 34 Dula Dangerous Driving Index .................................................................................... 34 Sensation Seeking ....................................................................................................... 35 Validity Scale Items .................................................................................................... 35 Current Well-being Questionnaire ............................................................................... 35 Simulation Scenarios ....................................................................................................... 36 Practice Drive .............................................................................................................. 37 Experimental Drive ..................................................................................................... 38 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 40 Phase One ................................................................................................................... 40 Phase Two ................................................................................................................... 41 Simulator Driver Behaviour Measures ............................................................................. 43 Straight Task ............................................................................................................... 43 Curve Task .................................................................................................................. 43 Driving to the