Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem Bölcsészettudományi Kar DOKTORI DISSZERTÁCIÓ Korzenszky Emőke The Iconographical and Theological Context of the Problem of Freedom and Determinism in Shakespeare's Macbeth Szabadság és determinizmus Shakespeare Macbeth című drámájában: ikonográfiai és teológiai kontextus Irodalomtudományi Doktori Iskola A Doktori Iskola vezetője: Dr. Kulcsár Szabó Ernő, PhD., egyetemi tanár Angol Reneszánsz és Barokk Irodalom Doktori Program A Doktori Program vezetője: Dr. Kállay Géza, PhD., egyetemi tanár A bizottság tagjai: A bizottság elnöke: Dr. Kállay Géza PhD., egyetemi tanár Hivatalosan felkért bírálók: Dr. Gellért Marcell PhD. Dr. Tóta Péter Benedek PhD. A bizottság titkára: Dr. Földváry Kinga PhD. A bizottság további tagjai: Dr. Pikli Natália PhD. Dr. Hargitai Márta Dr. Schandl Veronika Témavezető: Dr. Fabiny Tibor PhD., egyetemi tanár 2011 Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Tibor Fabiny for his encouragement, advice and remarks during the years of the preparation of this dissertation. I thank my family for their unconditional support. i The Iconographical and Theological Context of the Problem of Freedom and Determinism in Shakespeare’s Macbeth Acknowledgment i Table of Contents ii 1. Introduction 1 2. Religious concepts in Shakespearean tragedy 7 2.1. Biblical reading of Shakespeare’s work 7 2.2. Midrashic Macbeth? 9 2.3. Theology and tragedy 11 2.4. Christian approach to tragedy? 12 2.4.1. The tragic plot 13 2.4.2. Future contingents 14 2.4.3. The tragic equilibrium 16 2.4.4. Christian tragedy 17 2.4.5. The Christian fate 19 2.5. The Christianity of Macbeth 22 2.6. The need for a theological interpretation 23 2.7. Immediate religious impressions 23 2.8. Religious interpretation as the examination of the human condition 24 2.9. Religious awareness of the critic 26 3. Approaches to fate, fortune and free will 27 3.1. What/who is Fortuna? 28 3.2. Christian concept of Fortune 29 3.3. Poggio and the revival of the moody Goddess Fortune 33 3.4. Petrarch and the popular view of fortuna in the Renaissance 35 3.4.1. The “golden chain of necessity” 37 3.4.2. War against Fortune 38 3.5. Salutati's view on human freedom 39 3.5.1. Christian optimism 39 3.5.2. Fate and fortune 40 3.5.2.1.Divine necessity, relative necessity and contingency 41 3.5.2.2.Fortune Christianised 42 3.5.3. Goddess Fortune is Divine Providence 43 3.5.4. Stellar influence 44 3.5.5. Predestination 45 ii 3.6. Alberti: Fate and Fortune discussed at the dinner table 45 3.6.1. The river of Life 46 3.6.2. Humans thrown out into Life 48 3.6.3. Fortune and other powers 48 3.7. Ficino’s truce with Fortune and Fate 50 3.7.1. Wisdom against bodily fate and circumnavigating the whirlpool of Fortune 51 3.7.2. Movers of the universe and humble acknowledgement of man’s place 51 3.7.3. We make Fortune a goddess and set her in heaven 52 3.7.4. Escape or overcome fate? 52 3.7.5. Divine foreknowledge and the "foolish advocates of the Fates" 54 3.7.6. The will determined to the ultimate good 55 3.8. Machiavelli's concept of fortune 55 3.8.1. To outwit Lady Fortune 56 3.8.2. The operation of Fortune 58 4. The mutable faces of Fortune 64 4.1. From Kairos to Fortuna 64 4.2. Fortune's properties 66 4.2.1. The Wheel of Fortune 66 4.2.1.1. Stage property with Virtues 68 4.2.1.2. Representations of the Wheel of Fortune 69 4.2.2. The globe 70 4.2.3. Nude and air-like 71 4.2.4. The shipwrecked human destiny on the sea 72 4.2.5. Blind Fortune 73 4.3. Strategies against Fortune 73 4.3.1. Witty governance: the impresa 73 4.3.2. Virtue as guide, fortuna as companion 76 4.3.3. Come over fortune: marry her 77 4.3.4. Seize chance by the forelock 78 4.3.5. Kill fortune 78 5. What are these? The sisters of destiny 80 5.1. Methods of interpretation 80 5.2. Sisters of Destiny 82 5.2.1. Secret, black and midnight hags 84 5.2.2. Supernatural power 86 5.2.3. Prophecies 87 5.2.4. Posters of the sea and land 89 5.2.5. Provoke questions on foreknowledge 90 5.3. Hecate and Lady Fortune 90 iii 5.4. A rebel’s whore 92 5.4.1. Equivocator 94 5.4.2. Blind Fortune 96 5.4.3. Shipwrecking storms 96 5.4.4. Rush and seize us 97 5.5. The war of the virtuous and the wise 98 6. Free will and predestination 101 6.1. The necessity of freedom 101 6.2. Free will: theology or philosophy? 101 6.3. Origins 102 6.4. The Augustinian concept of human freedom and determination 103 6.4.1. Free will asserted 103 6.4.2. Determination 104 6.4.3. Grace and free will 106 6.4.4. Predestination 108 6.5. St. Thomas of Aquinas on free choice 110 6.5.1. Foreknowledge and future contingency 110 6.5.2. Free will granted by God 112 6.6. The Renaissance free will debate: Erasmus vs. Luther 113 6.6.1. Erasmus in the debate 114 6.6.1.1.Erasmus on free will 115 6.6.1.2.Against Luther and the bondage of the will 118 6.6.1.3.Foreknowledge and conditionality 119 6.6.1.4.Conclusion of the Diatribe 120 6.6.2. Luther: there is no such thing as free will 121 6.6.2.1.Answer to Erasmus 122 6.6.2.2.The enslaved will 122 6.6.2.3.The need for divine grace 123 6.7. Calvin on free will and predestination 125 6.7.1. Augustinianism and predestination 126 6.7.2. The voluntary will 128 6.7.3. Chance, fate and fortune opposed to the will of God 129 6.7.4. Providence 130 6.7.5. Human responsibility 131 7. Macbeth in bivio: the enigma of free choice 133 7.1. The choice of Hercules 133 7.2. The pilgrim’s dilemma 135 7.3. Bivium, the byways of life 136 7.3.1. Critical crossroads 138 iv 7.4. The “in bivio” choice 138 7.4.1. Emblems of “in bivio” choices 139 7.5. The choice Christianised 142 7.6. Macbeth’s Fall 144 7.6.1. The free will theology of the bivium 145 7.7. From Fortuna Bifrons to Hecate Triformis 147 7.8. “The greatest is behind” 148 8. From freedom to necessity 151 8.1. Obedience of the created man 151 8.2. “Be the serpent” 152 8.3. Awareness of divine justice 157 8.4. Corrupted man in the corrupted universe 159 8.5. Christian belief in divine providence 160 8.6. Thy will not be done 164 8.7. “Greatness is promis’d” 164 8.8. Victim or agent? 173 8.9. Evil or tragic hero? 176 8.10. The determination of sin 183 8.11. The temptation of predestination 184 9. Conclusion 186 Bibliography 194 List of images 202 Összegzés 205 v Chapter 1 Introduction In my dissertation I do not wish to point out that Shakespeare was a theologian or that his intention was to preach any religious doctrine through his dramatic art. Yet, there are several instances in which it can be clearly shown that Shakespeare drew on the Scripture and that his dramas reflect the general Christian doctrines of his age. In my dissertation I do not wish to point out either that Shakespearean drama was utilized as a medium for expressing Christian doctrine or theological theses. I share the view of G. Wilson Knight, however, that Christ’s sacrifice can be seen as central or focal point of Shakespearean tragedy.1 In this present dissertation I would like to point out the references of Shakespearean drama to widely discussed religious topics. The connection of Shakespearean text to religious doctrines are apparent, moreover, as I will point out, too striking as not to take them into account. The question of free will and supernatural influence on human fate has always stirred up human anxiety, and Shakespeare, with his philosophical sensitivity, referred to these anxieties. Battenhouse points out that the dramatic form creates the logic of a parable similar to those of Jesus', who challenged his audience to distinguish good and evil.2 Christian allusions, however, might be misleading, and the "truth of the drama can be overlooked by readers who look to Shakespeare simply as a storehouse of moral sentiments". 3 Concerning the justification of Christian interpretation of Shakespearean drama today, Battenhouse claims that the Christian dimension to those resisting Christian mystery is similar to the Paulian scandal of the cross.4 In the followings, I will attempt to interpret Shakespeare's Christian allusions as "more than decorative"5 and I will try to highlight the referred religious dimension, to be more specific, the awareness of a supernatural power operating in the universe in Shakespeare's Macbeth. We do not, however, know much of Shakespeare’s Christianity, but that he was baptised and was well-read in the Bible presumably via listening to readings and 1 Steven Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible. (New York: Oxford University Press) 7. 2 Roy Battenhouse, "Preface," in Shakespeare's Christian Dimension, ed. Roy Battenhouse (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994), xi.