BABESCH 94 (2019), 147-160. doi: 10.2143/BAB.94.0.3286783 The emperor and the plough (re)founding the city and extending the empire Saskia Stevens Summary This contribution focuses on the Roman urban foundation ritual, the sulcus primigenius, and its related boundary, the pomerium. Rather than studying actual city foundations, such as the city of Rome itself and later Roman colonies, it addresses the metaphorical use of the sulcus primigenius and the pomerium in various media. By looking at inscriptions, bas-reliefs and coins, the paper argues that the image of the city founder and the plough was used in the imperial period to signpost a close connection to Rome, announce periods of political transformation or renewal, and advertise an extension of Rome’s spheres of influence.* The image of a priestly figure with a plough (fig. 1): from orbis, the circle drawn by the plough.2 The a depiction that is instantly understood as the ploughing ritual, in Latin known as the sulcus Roman urban foundation ritual, first and fore- primigenius, got a wider application and signifi- most, the mythical foundation of Rome. Even cance: a proper Roman city was founded in the though the priest in this image is not depicted same way as, according to tradition, Romulus capite velato, as one would expect, the garlands had once founded Rome. According to several adorning the cattle’s horns indicate that the scene ancient authors, the sulcus primigenius had its ori- depicts a ritual and not a plain agricultural activ- gin in Etruscan culture shrouding the phenome- ity. The urban foundation ritual has been described non in obscurity, turning it into something that by various authors, such as Cato, Varro, Livy and belonged to a distant past.3 Despite its supposed later Plutarch: on a day favoured by the auspices, antiquarianism, however, the sulcus primigenius Romulus drew a plough, pulled by an ox and a kept its importance until well into the imperial cow, around the intended limits of Rome.1 Varro, period. A similar observation can be made for the in the 1st century BCE, furthermore mentioned pomerium, in current literature generally defined that other cities in Latium were found according as Rome’s religious or ritual boundary and con- to this ritual; these cities were hence called urbes, nected to the sulcus primigenius.4 Fig. 1. Relief from Aquileia depicting the sulcus primigenius. Width 0,98 m., height 0,44 m., depth 0,09 m. Photo author, courtesy Museo Archeologico di Aquileia; inventory number 1171. 147 From the early imperial period onwards, the important symbolic limit as he was not allowed image of a founder with a plough seems to have to cross the pomerium until the day of his triumph gained significance and started to appear as a at the risk of losing his right to publicly celebrate theme in various media, such as coinage and his victory in the city.10 In fact, crossing the pomer- reliefs. While some of the images can be related ium in arms must have been one of the perks for to actual (re)foundations of Roman cities and the celebrating triumphant general.11 In this con- colonies, others clearly had a symbolic signifi- text, the pomerium seems to have marked the cance only.5 The aim of this paper is to demon- boundary between the civic and civilized world strate how the ploughing theme, the sulcus primi- inside the city limits, and the military one out- genius and the related pomerium, developed over side.12 From epigraphic evidence and literary time from purely religious and ritual phenomena descriptions we furthermore know that the pome- related to the foundation of Rome, to strong rium could be extended if a general met certain political and symbolic tools used in a broader criteria concerning the extension of Rome’s context in the imperial period. By contextualising realm.13 As such, the extended pomerium flagged a number of foundation scenes from various Rome’s military power and superior position, media, I argue that in the imperial period the advertising its successes on a local level. pomerium and sulcus primigenius were renewed or Considering these regulations related to the reintroduced in Rome particularly at times of pomerium, it seems that it was of rather limited political transformation or renewal, as a way of relevance to most people, with the exception of marking a new start by simultaneously referring certain priests, magistrates and army command- to Rome’s mythical past. Wrapped in a visually ers. As a boundary, the pomerium was also a familiar theme, they locally advertised an exten- rather passive feature in contrast to the sulcus sion of Rome’s power or the advent of a new primigenius, which represented action; the sulcus political regime. primigenius was a ritual performed at the founda- tion of a Roman city marking its very start. The THE SULCUS PRIMIGENIUS AND THE POMERIUM use of the plough enhanced the idea of beginning as the ploughshare breached virgin soil, reorgan- Before we look at the development in significance ised it and made it suitable for human habita- of the sulcus primigenius and the pomerium, it is tion.14 Once the foundation had taken place, the important to establish their respective roles in the only visible trace the ephemeral ritual left behind Roman urban foundation ritual. Overall, the in the landscape was the city wall. The pomerium ancient sources tend to agree on the performance only became visible, to some extent, when people of the sulcus primigenius, which happened - with such as triumphant generals, augurs and auspi- some variations - as described at the beginning of cating magistrates, played their parts in rituals 6 this paper. The sulcus primigenius left no visible related to the pomerial boundary. Additionally, traces besides the furrow that appeared during the every February the annual lustration ritual, the ceremony, marking the location of the later city amburbium, conjured up the sulcus primigenius wall. The concept of the sulcus primigenius seems when the people of Rome circumambulated the rather straightforward; the pomerium, however, is boundaries of the city in a procession that another matter. strongly resembled the urban foundation ritual: a What do we know about the pomerium and its procession moving in a counter clockwise motion visibility in the landscape? Varro mentioned that along the outer limit of the city’s boundary.15 This the pomerium was the urbis principium, the begin- recurring ritual not only reconfirmed the bound- nings of a city, the first feature that initiated a 7 aries of the city, but also evoked memories of the city’s existence. The pomerium marked the limits city’s original foundation and at the same time of the urban auspices and as such was of rele- created a sense of communal belonging.16 vance to the collegium of augurs and the magis- Besides analysing the written sources, both 8 trates involved. In this role, the pomerium must ancient writers and modern scholars alike have have been a boundary in three dimensions: not studied the pomerium etymologically to better only a limit on the ground but also a vertical grasp its significance. According to the ancient dividing line reaching up to the sky where the etymologists, the word pomerium was a contrac- flight of the birds was to be observed.9 Until the tion of the words pro or post and murum: a feature reign of Augustus, the pomerium bounded the in front of, or behind the city wall.17 From what tribunicia potestas and for a victorious general aspir- point of view the pomerium was ‘in front of’ or ing to triumph on his return to Rome, it was an ‘behind’ the wall is difficult to reconstruct, which 148 is another complicating factor in understanding stitute, at least the act of crossing the pomerium in its exact meaning.18 Modern scholars have also arms was part of the celebration, if we are to attempted to discover the origins of the word, believe Varro.26 which resulted in an irresolvable debate and the How now to reconstruct the complex relation- evidence for either position, that is located ‘in ship between the pomerium and the sulcus primi- front of’ or ‘behind’ the wall, seems to be circum- genius? In my view, the pomerium and sulcus stantial.19 In a 2014 article, Simone Sisani addressed this ambiguity and argued that if the pomerium is primigenius ought to be seen as separate bounda- understood as a phenomenon unrelated to the ries with different functions. Nevertheless, a close city wall and the sulcus primigenius, the obscurity connection with the city wall should be main- can be better understood: the city wall should be tained.27 Gianluca De Sanctis’ exploration of the seen as a structure to keep the enemy out, and its relationship between the pomerium, the sulcus point of view is therefore from the outside; the primigenius and the city wall in a 2007 article, pomerium as a boundary, containing and safe- offers a convincing interpretation.28 In the past, guarding the legal and religious integrity of the the pomerium and sulcus primigenius have been city, should be seen from the inside and is there- 20 incorrectly used as interchangeable concepts and fore located on the inside of the city wall. De Sanctis focusses in his article on disentangling Another point of discussion resulting from the ancient sources’ ambiguity is whether the pome- the two phenomena. He investigates their respec- rium was a line or a zone.21 Not only modern tive relationships to the city wall by critically 29 scholars still struggle with the pomerial phenom- revisiting the primary sources.