Understanding the Perpetrator’s Experience: Shame, Guilt, and Forgiveness by Elisabeth Xie A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology Carleton University Ottawa, Canada © 2020 Elisabeth Xie ii Abstract Research on transgressions has focused almost exclusively on the experience of the victim. Extrapolating from the attributional theory of motivation and emotion, this research aimed to gain a better understanding of how individuals make sense of a perpetrator’s experience following transgressions. In three studies (combined N = 288; 73.3% female; Mage = 21.3) undergraduate students read hypothetical transgressions and assessed perceived likelihood of shame, guilt, forgiveness seeking, and self-forgiveness from the actor in each scenario. Results suggest that people sometimes do make a distinction between shame and guilt and that causal attributions and whether victims were involved in the transgression may aid people in making this distinction. Results also suggest that causal attributions, the presence of other victims, and perceived emotions may influence perceptions about forgiveness. These findings may allow for a more in-depth understanding of the psychology of transgressions and may have implications for law and conflict resolution. Keywords: Shame, Guilt, Forgiveness, Perpetrator, Transgression iii Acknowledgments First and foremost, thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Chris Davis, for sharing your passion for science and tremendous knowledge in psychology. You have helped me to become a more thoughtful and motivated researcher. It is a privilege to have had you as my mentor. Thank you to the other incredible researchers that I have had the honour of working with during my time as a Masters student. Dr. Rachel Burns, Dr. Susan Boon, and Dr. Michael Wohl, you have all taught me invaluable skills and have contributed immensely to my development. For that, I am sincerely thankful. This research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Government of Ontario, and Carleton University. Thank you to these funding agencies for providing me with the financial support necessary to dedicate my time and attention to my research projects. Thank you to the Department of Psychology for helping to provide me with incredible opportunities. I would also like to express my sincerest gratitude to my family and my friends, both old and new. Your continuous support and patience propel me forward. Thank you for listening to my ideas and giving me advice. To my labmates and the wonderful friends who I have had the pleasure of meeting during my Masters program, this degree would not have been the same without you all. Thank you to my partner, Connor, for your constant love, support, and encouragement. Thank you for celebrating my accomplishments and always believing in me when things get tough. You inspire me and help me dream bigger each and every day. iv Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................ vii List of Appendices ......................................................................................................... viii Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 Weiner’s attributional theory of motivation and emotion .................................. 2 The role of causal attributions on pereceptions of shame and guilt ................... 3 The influence of perceived emotions on perceived behavioural response ......... 6 Forgiveness seeking ........................................................................................... 6 Study 1 ............................................................................................................................ 8 Method ............................................................................................................... 10 Participants and Procedure ................................................................................. 10 Materials ............................................................................................................. 11 Results ................................................................................................................. 14 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 19 Study 2 ............................................................................................................................ 21 Method ................................................................................................................ 23 Participants and Procedure .................................................................................. 23 Materials .............................................................................................................. 23 Results ................................................................................................................. 25 v Discussion ........................................................................................................... 27 Study 3 ............................................................................................................................ 29 Method ................................................................................................................ 31 Participants and Procedure .................................................................................. 31 Materials .............................................................................................................. 32 Results ................................................................................................................. 35 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 42 General Discussion ......................................................................................................... 48 Shame and guilt distinction ................................................................................ 48 Forgiveness seeking ............................................................................................ 51 Self-forgiveness .................................................................................................. 52 Strengths and limitations ................................................................................... 55 Conclusion and future directions ................................................................................... 56 References ....................................................................................................................... 58 vi List of Tables Table 1. Assessments of primary emotions in scenarios ............................................... 15 Table 2. Bivariate correlations between emotions ........................................................ 16 Table 3. Bivariate correlations between items assessing shame and guilt ................... 36 Table 4. Bivariate correlations between emotions and forgiveness (interpersonal) ..... 42 Table 5. Bivariate correlations between emotions and forgiveness (intrapersonal) ..... 42 vii List of Figures Figure 1. Interaction (emotion x type) in unstable-controllable scenarios (Study 1) ... 17 Figure 2. Interaction (emotion x type) in stable-uncontrollable scenarios (Study 1) ... 18 Figure 3. Interaction (emotion x type) in unstable-controllable scenarios (Study 2) ... 26 Figure 4. Interaction (emotion x type) in stable-uncontrollable scenarios (Study 2) ... 27 Figure 5. Interaction (emotion x type) in unstable-controllable scenarios (Study 3) ... 37 Figure 6. Interaction (emotion x type) in stable-uncontrollable scenarios (Study 3) ... 38 Figure 7. Interaction (causal attributions x type) (Study 3) .......................................... 40 viii List of Appendices Study 1 Appendices ...................................................................................................... 63 Appendix A: Recruitment Notice ..................................................................... 63 Appendix B: Informed Consent ........................................................................ 64 Appendix C: Survey Materials .......................................................................... 66 Appendix D: Debriefing .................................................................................... 77 Study 2 Appendices ....................................................................................................... 78 Appendix A: Recruitment Notice ...................................................................... 78 Appendix B: Informed Consent ......................................................................... 79 Appendix C: Survey Materials ..........................................................................