University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Capstone Projects Capstones 9-26-2013 Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ Jer Clifton [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://repository.upenn.edu/mapp_capstone Part of the Psychology Commons Clifton, Jer, "Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’" (2013). Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Capstone Projects. 41. http://repository.upenn.edu/mapp_capstone/41 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. http://repository.upenn.edu/mapp_capstone/41 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ Abstract Beliefs matter. This paper examines the “biggest” of all possible beliefs, universal assessments (UAs), which consist of our “take” on the whole universe. UAs are a subset of worldview, which is in turn a subset of schema. After discussing the development of Weltanschauung in continental philosophy and the capacity of schemas to generate expectancy, three previously researched UAs are identified (universal benevolence or safety, universal meaningfulness, and belief in a just world). All have been shown to influence life outcomes, but three is only a beginning. Moreover, the focus of research thus far has been on alleviating the ‘miserable life,’ so we do not yet know which UAs lead to the ‘good life.’ A speculative analysis is conducted which identifies thirteen UA continuum opposite pairs that might influence the ‘good life,’ defined here as the development of strengths and positive emotions. The thirteen pairs include is the universe good/bad, beautiful/ugly, malleable/ unchangeable, improving/declining, safe/dangerous, just/unjust, comprehensible/incomprehensible, subject-centric/not subject-centric, and intentional/mindless, as well as should it be accepted/changed, explored/avoided, and experienced with others/alone? This list, though only preliminary and based on the intuitions of the author, can be a point of departure for what comes next. A call is made for a coordinated and systematic UA classification program that would catalyze future research. Keywords universal assessments, assumptive world, positive psychology, the good life, the universe, beliefs, worldview, Weltanschauung, schema Disciplines Psychology | Social and Behavioral Sciences This working paper is available at ScholarlyCommons: http://repository.upenn.edu/mapp_capstone/41 Running Head: THIRTEEN UAs WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE GOOD LIFE 1 Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ Jeremy D. W. Clifton University of Pennsylvania A Capstone Project Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Positive Psychology Advisor: James O. Pawelski August 1, 2013 THIRTEEN UAs WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE GOOD LIFE 2 Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ Jeremy D. W. Clifton [email protected] Capstone Project Master of Applied Positive Psychology University of Pennsylvania Advisor: James O. Pawelski August 1, 2013 Abstract Beliefs matter. This paper examines the “biggest” of all possible beliefs, universal assessments (UAs), which consist of our “take” on the whole universe. UAs are a subset of worldview, which is in turn a subset of schema. After discussing the development of Weltanschauung in continental philosophy and the capacity of schemas to generate expectancy, three previously researched UAs are identified (universal benevolence or safety, universal meaningfulness, and belief in a just world). All have been shown to influence life outcomes, but three is only a beginning. Moreover, the focus of research thus far has been on alleviating the ‘miserable life,’ so we do not yet know which UAs lead to the ‘good life.’ A speculative analysis is conducted which identifies thirteen UA continuum opposite pairs that might influence the ‘good life,’ defined here as the development of strengths and positive emotions. The thirteen pairs include is the universe good/bad, beautiful/ugly, interesting/boring, malleable/unchangeable, improving/declining, safe/dangerous, just/unjust, comprehensible/incomprehensible, subject-centric/not subject- centric, and intentional/mindless, as well as should it be accepted/changed, explored/avoided, and experienced with others/alone? This list, though only preliminary and based on the intuitions of the author, can be a point of departure for what comes next. A call is made for a coordinated and systematic UA classification program that would catalyze future research. Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ 3 Table of Contents Part I: The Development of UA-related Theory and Research 3 Weltanschauung 3 Schemas 3 Conceptualizing UAs 3 Previously Researched UAs 3 Positive Psychology 3 Part II: Thirteen Universal Assessments 3 An Exercise in Hypothesis Generation 3 Thirteen UA Pairs Which May Affect the ‘Good Life’ 3 Next Steps 3 Summary & Conclusion 3 References 3 Appendix A: Analysis Summary 3 1: The Universe is Good vs. The Universe is Bad 3 The Negativity Bias 3 2: The Universe is Interesting vs. The Universe is Boring 3 3: The Universe is Beautiful vs. The Universe is Ugly 3 4: The Universe Can Change vs. The Universe Cannot Change 3 Universal Assessments and Optimism 3 5: The World is Getting Better vs. The World is Getting Worse 3 6: The Universe is Safe vs. The Universe is Dangerous 3 7: The Universe Should be Explored vs. The Universe Should be Avoided 3 Universal Assessments and Travel Habits 3 8: The Universe is Comprehensible vs. the Universe is Incomprehensible 3 9: I am not the Center of the Universe vs. The Universe Revolves Around Me 3 10: The Universe has Intentionality vs. The Universe is Mindless 3 11: The Universe is Best Experienced with Others vs. the Universe is Best Experienced Alone 3 12: The World is as it Should Be vs. the World Needs Change 3 13: The World is Just vs. The World is Unjust 3 Appendix B: Analysis Notations — Strengths & UAs 3 Appendix C: Analysis Notations — Positive Emotions & UAs 3 Appendix D: The Leaf Exercise 3 THIRTEEN UAs WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE GOOD LIFE 4 Part I: The Development of UA-related Theory and Research Beliefs matter. Beliefs can motivate or discourage (Maddux, 2009), fight depression or cause it (Carifoa & Nasser, 2012), and affect goal-setting (Locke, 1996). Dweck (2006) has found that beliefs about where intelligence and talent come from and develop plays a profound role in human development. General beliefs may even lead to danger-seeking behavior among motorcyclists (Christakis, 2004). Reivich and Shatte (2002) assert that, “in most situations, our beliefs cause our feelings and behaviors” (p. 67). The assumption of cognitive behavioral therapy is that beliefs drive our emotional responses to events, which translate into behavior (Ellis & Ellis, 2011; Beck & Weishaar, 1989). Beliefs which matter may concern any number of objects—our self, spouses, parents, colleagues, school, church, soda, etc.—and they have potentially enormous ramifications for how we interact with those objects and create the content of our lived existence. This paper focuses on beliefs regarding the biggest of all possible objects, the entire universe, and these beliefs are referred to as “universal assessments” (UAs). UAs are judgements of what the world is like as a whole—our ‘take’ on everything (I will use the term world and universe interchangeably). A hypothesis will be put forward that humans may hold universal assessments which affect daily life and the likelihood of having a ‘good life.’ For example, is this universe a horrible prison, a realm of wonder, both, or something in between? Should we hunker down and endure life, or grab a snack and go exploring? Answers might be tied to life outcomes. Ultimately, a goal of UA research could be to answer a deliberate series of nine empirical questions. First, what universal assessments do people actually hold, who holds them, and what do the distributions look like? Second, how are they held (implicitly or explicitly, compulsorily Thirteen Universal Assessments Which May Contribute to the ‘Good Life’ 5 or freely, strongly or weakly, etc.)? Third, can certain UAs be tied to specific life outcomes, such as depression, divorce, subjective well-being, longevity, health, strengths, or even travel habits? Fourth, what is the causal relationship between UAs and life outcomes? Fifth, which UAs are most conducive to holistic human flourishing? Sixth, where do UAs come from, and at what age are they typically formed? Seventh, can UAs change? Eighth, can interventions be developed which change UAs into those most likely to generate positive life outcomes? Ninth, can these interventions be administered at scale? In short, I am interested in changing the world by examining and then potentially changing our beliefs about it. This paper, however, is exploratory and conceptual. It will not address any of these empirical questions directly. However, it will move the discussion in that direction. The first half of the paper will be divided into five sections. The first section will trace the development of the concept of worldview from its origins in German philosophy to its establishment as an important idea in psychology and broader society. The second section will introduce the concept of schemas and articulate how they shape life by creating expectancy. The third section will define UAs as a subset of worldview and worldview as a subset of schemas, as well as identifying four types of UAs. The fourth section will review three UAs which have received research attention, namely belief in a just world (BJW), universal meaningfulness, and universal benevolence, and summarize findings indicating they play an important role in human life. For instance, people high in belief in a just world (BJW), which is the view that people, in general, get what they deserve and deserve what they get, are more likely to make long-term goals, strive for their realization, and expect their work to be rewarded (e.g.