HISTORIOGRAPHY Chinchéus and Sangleys Ten Remarks on the Chinese Presence in Melaka and Manila (16th-17th Centuries) Paulo Jorge de Sousa Pinto* 1. The Portuguese were established there arrived in Southeast Asia or not. Another object in 1509 as the result of a of research was their direct order by the Portu- homeland, its dimension guese King D. Manuel and how powerful their to look for Melaka and king was.1 to obtain a deal with The first contact local authorities. The commander of the expedition, the Portuguese had with Melaka and Southeast Asia Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, was also in charge of a wider was also, therefore, the first contact with the Chinese reconnaissance mission, in order to gather the largest trade network that operated there. Two years later, possible volume of information about the commercial the city was seized under the command of Afonso de life of the city. Among the orders issued by the king, Albuquerque. It opened the access to the Far East, there was one in particular that projected the horizon of the continental kingdoms of Southeast Asia and the the Portuguese beyond local dimensions. He was urged Malay-Indonesian archipelago, and also China, to to get detailed information about the Chinese, their the Portuguese. The Chinese merchants in Melaka physical aspect and religion, their ships and wealth, influenced the Portuguese governor in his decision to how often they went to Melaka and whether they use the force of arms instead of diplomacy to resolve the conflict that opposed him to the Malay sultan.2 They also played a leading role in the success of Albuquerque’s strategy that followed the conquest of the city, not only * Ph.D. in Historical Sciences, M.A. in History of the Age of Discovery and the Portuguese Expansion from the Catholic University of Portugal. He is currently supporting the assault, but also acting on behalf of a researcher on the CECC (Center for the Study of Communication and Culture) the Portuguese in the diplomatic field and providing at the same University and holds a post-doctoral scholarship granted by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology. His most recent book substantial information about commercial life in the is The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka, 1575-1619: Power, Trade and Diplomacy Far East. (Singapore, NUS Press, 2012). The messengers sent by Albuquerque to the Douroramento em Ciências Históricas e Mestrado em História dos Descobrimentos Thai kingdom travelled in Chinese junks and were e da Expansão Portuguesa pela Universidade Católica Portuguesa. Actualmente é investigador do CECC (Centro de Estudos de Comunicação e Cultura) da mesma introduced to the king by Chinese traders from Melaka, Universidade e bolseiro pós-doutoramento da Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia. 3 O seu livro mais recente é The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka, 1575-1619: on the way to their homeland; they also carried the Power, Trade and Diplomacy (Singapura, NUS Press, 2012). first information about the newcomers to China. The 2013 • 43 • Review of Culture 59 PaulO JORGE DE SOUSA PINTO HISTORIOGRAFIA 60 Revista de Cultura • 43 • 2013 TEN REMARKS ON THE CHINESE PRESENCE IN Melaka AND Manila (16TH-17TH CENTURIES) HISTORIOGRAPHY Chinese were precious to the Portuguese, not only to and hoped to find a quick alternative target to the their success in the Straits of Melaka, but also—so conquista were eager to confirm these reports and to they believed—as valuable intermediate agents for the widen the horizons of the Spanish presence into the contacts with China that would follow. Middle Kingdom.6 The expedition under the command of Martín 2. Some sixty years later, and after a succession of de Goyti, who arrived at Manila in 1570, confirmed unfortunate attempts, the Spaniards finally established the previous information; there was, in fact, a small their Asian empire, not through the Cape of Good but prosperous Hokkien community in the city. They Hope but by means of a link to Mexico. Since 1521 were called Sangleys, a designation that has raised a long and the success of Magalhães’ expedition they had debate about its origin and meaning.7 As had occurred looked for a way to reach Asia and the Spice Islands. in 1511 with Afonso de Albuquerque in Melaka, the The problem of the anti-meridian of Tordesillas, the Spaniards were supported by the Chinese against the tension with Portugal, the Treaty of Zaragoza and the Muslim local king.8 Therefore, it was in their best technical problems that prevented the return voyage interest to establish good relations with them. After the to Mexico, delayed the project of an Asian empire for conquest, a struggle with the Chinese pirate Lin Feng several decades. An expedition led by Miguel López de 林凤 gave the Spaniards an opportunity to establish Legazpi finally settled in the Philippine archipelago in direct contacts with an imperial fleet and Chinese 1565 and was able to elude Portuguese surveillance in military authorities.9 the Moluccas and their efforts to dislodge them from China was a very important goal to the the region.4 Portuguese and the Spaniards, who were convinced Initially, the Spaniards pursued the access to the that establishing contacts and good relations with the Spice Islands, but this target was soon replaced by a overseas Chinese communities, in Melaka or Manila more realistic objective, which was to find a way to respectively, would allow a quick and easy access to establish a direct contact with China. To the Spaniards, Mainland China. This assumption, however, proved to the Middle Kingdom was some sort of a new El Dorado. be misleading. Firstly, it concerned two different worlds: There was a considerable amount of confusion and the business environment of Southeast Asian Chinese outdated information about China that circulated in was informal and pragmatic, made of compromise and the Spanish chronicles and reports, mixed with old practical interests, far away from the formal procedures and fabulous ideas about the existence of islands of and the ceremonial and rigid bureaucracy that ruled gold and silver somewhere in the surroundings.5 This the imperial court of Ming China. Furthermore, the clearly matched Spanish expectations of expansion relationship between the territorial space of China and and conquest. The initial settlement in the island of the exterior was at the time under specific and restrictive Cebu had been frustrating: the coveted spices did not guidelines of which the Europeans were not aware. exist and the local population was poor and unable to correspond to the model of wealthy kingdoms 3. What then was the framework that regu- like those found and conquered by Cortés and lated the relations of Ming China with the Pizarro in America. The decision to move to outside world? There had been an initial Manila arose from the expectations to find a period of interest and openness to the more auspicious environment. southern region by the turning of the Its excellent port and geographical 15th century. The famous maritime position was a perfect spot for future access to expeditions led by Zheng He 鄭和 China. However, the decisive impulse to make and the military campaigns in Viet- Manila the headquarters of the Spanish empire in nam were the most visible signs of this Asia came from the rumours about the existence short-lived trend. However, the imperial of a Chinese mercantile community in the city. court came to gradually regard with dis- Those who were disappointed with the Visayas trust and disinterest the external affairs Plan of the Malacca fortress. In Manuel Godinho de Erédia’s Declaraçam in Southeast Asia and the permanent de Malaca, 1613. turbulence that occurred in the region. 2013 • 43 • Review of Culture 61 PaulO JORGE DE SOUSA PINTO HISTORIOGRAFIA The problems in Central Asia and the pressure on the connections and creating new partnerships with other northern border of the empire were considered the trading groups and extending their activities through- most serious threats to China’s territorial integrity. The out Southeast Asia. political power was based in Beijing and became less From the official point of view, their activities interested in what was happening among the various were considered semi-clandestine, since all Emperors’ quarrelling tributary states to the south.10 subjects were forbidden to leave Chinese soil. But the This shift caused a semi-closure of China to imperial court was in Beijing, far in the north, and the Southeast Asia. Diplomatic relations acquired a mere state bureaucracy was, to some extent, permeable in ceremonial and ritual tone based on formal recognition compromising with the maritime and coastal realities. and acceptance of Chinese overlordship with the This allowed some flexibility and tolerance, which could consequent tributary statements by the southern vary according to different political circumstances, kingdoms. Therefore, China developed an isolationist economic pressures and the balance of power between policy that was to persist throughout the whole Ming several factions within the mandarinate. period. In practical terms, securitarian concerns with the maritime borders were raised and the coast was 4. China, although being officially self-sufficient, closed. All trade was allowed only in the framework was an economic giant avid for exchanges. In some of the tributary system and, with regard to Southeast coastal regions, including Fujian, the production Asia, was centralised in Guangzhou. This practice was of manufactured goods—porcelains and textiles of known as haijin 海禁, or ‘maritime interdiction’ and it excellent quality—had increased and specialised. The was formally valid, despite some variations and partial maritime trade networks intensified its efforts to supply intermissions, for more than two centuries, to be finally the domestic market and were obviously ready to take abolished by Emperor Kangxi in the last quarter of the advantage of any relaxation of the rules imposed by the 17th century.