This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ Diaspora Tourism and Homeland Development Exploring the Impacts of African American Tourists on the Livelihoods of Local Traders in Southern Ghana Afrifah, Michelle Awarding institution: King's College London The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). 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Sep. 2021 This electronic theses or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ Title: Diaspora Tourism and Homeland Development: Exploring the Impacts of African American Tourists on the Livelihoods of Local Traders in Southern Ghana Author: Nana Michelle Tiwaa Afrifah The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ You are free to: Share: to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. DIASPORA TOURISM AND HOMELAND DEVELOPMENT: EXPLORING THE IMPACTS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN TOURISTS ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF LOCAL TRADERS IN SOUTHERN GHANA By Nana Michelle Tiwaa Afrifah A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy King’s College London 2014 1 Abstract The value of Diasporas to homeland development is a key research area in tourism development literature. The African Diaspora has been contributing to homeland development in a number of ways, but especially as tourists. Tourism research on sub- Saharan Africa has focused little on the supply side issues such as the nature and impact of African American tourists’ spending behaviour whilst holidaying in the continent. This is important because it is of great concern in tourism development literature whether vulnerable people such as local craft traders receive a livable share of visitor spending. So using the concept of Diaspora relations and homeland development as a platform, the thesis assesses the benefits of African American tourists’ expenditure on the livelihoods of local craft traders in several tourist sites in southern Ghana, whilst also examining the impacts of tour operators who manage these tourists on their expenditure patterns. The study found that though African American tourists provide a significant input into traders’ total incomes, their market alone does not provide traders with a survivable or livable income. They do not spend enough to provide the sole source of traders’ incomes. Tourist expenditure on handicrafts such as beads and fabrics, although infrequent, was nonetheless a key source of income for craftsmen and has enabled them to sustain themselves, their homes, their businesses and their families. The study also traces the commodity chain involved in the production of one particular handicraft, beaded crafts, providing insights into the global and local factors which influence who benefits from their production and trade before they reach the final point of sale to tourists. Beaded crafts are heavily patronized by Diaspora tourists. Sales from these were found not only to benefit larger scale businesses but also to reach smaller one-man businesses, helping them to sustain themselves. As the beaded craft industry is international and sources many of its beads from China as well as other sub-Saharan African markets, tourist expenditure in Ghana is also aiding bead sellers and manufacturers in neighboring African countries. 2 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 2 List of Tables .................................................................................................................... 9 List of Figures ................................................................................................................ 10 List of Appendices .......................................................................................................... 11 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ 12 Chapter 1. Diaspora Tourism, Homeland Development and Trader Livelihoods ..................................................................................................................... 13 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 13 1.2 Background to Study: the Diaspora, Tourism and Homeland Development ................................................................................................................... 14 1.3 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 17 1.4 Aims and Objectives of Thesis ................................................................................. 19 1.5 Scope of Study: the Central Region, the Greater Accra Region and the Eastern Region of Ghana ................................................................................................ 20 1.5.1 Geographical Boundaries ....................................................................................... 20 1.5.2 Temporal Boundaries ............................................................................................. 20 1.6 Justification of Study Area ........................................................................................ 21 1.7 Tourism Actors, Local Traders and Handicrafts, their Denominations and Context in Study ....................................................................................................... 22 1.8 Importance of Study .................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 2. International Tourism and its Value to Homeland Development .................................................................................................................. 30 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 30 2.2 The Importance of Tourism ...................................................................................... 30 2.3 International Tourism ................................................................................................ 32 2.4 The Value of International Tourist Expenditure ....................................................... 32 3 2.5 Diaspora Tourism, Homeland Development and Local Livelihoods........................ 36 2.5.1 Defining Diaspora, Key Authors and Key Themes ............................................... 38 2.5.2 African Diaspora Investments in the Homeland: Debates and Issues.................... 42 2.5.2.1 Debates ................................................................................................................ 42 2.5.2.2 What Motivates African Diaspora Homeland Investments ................................ 44 2.5.3 The Controversies of Homeland Return and Homeland Development ................. 48 2.5.4 Handicraft Traders and Local Livelihoods ............................................................ 49 2.6 The Role of the Tour Operator .................................................................................. 51 Chapter 3. Diaspora Tourism in sub-Saharan Africa ................................................ 55 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 55 3.2 The Slave Tour Heritage Tradition in Senegal, Nigeria, Benin