Motivations and Trajectories: A Study of Polish Migrants in Cardiff, Wales Julie Porter Thesis submitted to Cardiff University, UK in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2013 i Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed …………………………………………………………. (candidate) Date …August 5, 2013…………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed …………………………………………………………. (candidate) Date…… August 5, 2013…………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. Signed …………………………………………………………. (candidate) Date… August 5, 2013……………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed …………………………………………………………. (candidate) Date … August 5, 2013……………… ii Thesis Summary The aim of this thesis is to understand how the actions and the motivations of the Polish migrants who entered the United Kingdom post-2004 have evolved throughout their migration period using the concept of migration trajectories. The existing literature on Polish migrants in the United Kingdom after enlargement points to these migrants being solely economic actors, relying on their economic motivations to dictate their actions throughout their entire migration. Using data collected in 2008 and 2011 in Cardiff, Wales, this thesis seeks to highlight the range of complex motivations held by Polish migrants over time. As the data collection period coincided with the global recession, the impact of the recession on the migrants’ motivations was also taken into account. Five trajectories were created from the sample of migrant respondents focusing on various phases of the migration period including the migrants’ experience in the labour market, the migrants’ use of social networks and the migrants’ future plans. Trajectories are a valuable aid to an in-depth account of the evolution of the migrants’ motivations and actions throughout their migration period. In summary, the migrants in the sample have a variety of motivations to stay in the destination country longer than what they initially expected. With caveats, these findings can be generalised to the wider population of post-2004 Poles in Cardiff and in other cities in the UK. Due to the continuous enlargement of the European Union, the findings from this thesis have implications for future national and supranational migration policy. iii Contents Title Page …..………………………………………………………………………...……….i Summary..…………………………………………………………………………..…..……iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..…...........iv Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….…….ix Chapter 1: Introduction to the Thesis………………………...…………………..………..1 Introduction: Why is Polish Migration in the EU an Important Subject?.................................1 EU Background to Free Labour Movement: 1957-2011………………….………………….4 Contextualising Polish Migration to the UK: A review of classic migration flows to the UK...........................................................................................................................................10 Commonwealth Immigrants to the UK Post-WWII………………………………...…...10 Irish Immigration to the UK post-WWII…...……………………………………………16 Contextualising Polish Migration to the UK: A review of contemporary intra-EU migration flows………………………………………………………………………………………....18 Polish migration to the UK: WWII – 2004………………………………………………18 A8 Migration Post- 2004……………...…………………………………………….…….20 Polish Migration to EU countries Post-2004: Open Door Policy………………………..22 Polish Migration to EU countries post-2004: After the transition arrangements………..25 Polish Migration to Germany……………………………………………………………25 Polish Migration to Austria…………….……………………………………………...…26 The Impact of the Polish Migration on National Policy…………………….………………27 Polish Migrants in the UK: A homogeneous group?..............................................................30 Chapter Signposting…………….…………………………………………………………...32 Chapter 2: Review of the Existing Literature on Migrant Motivations…………….….36 Introduction…………….……………………………………………………………………36 Classifying Polish migrants in the UK……………….……………………………………...37 Typologies and Trajectories……………………………………………………………...37 Migration Patterns………………………………………………………………………..42 Analysis of Migrants’ Motivations………….………………………………………………44 Economic Motivations to Migrate…………………………………………......................45 Economic Migrant Motivations and Neo-Classical Economic Theory……..……...45 Economic Migrant Motivations in a Neo-liberal framework…………….……...…48 The ‘Cost’ of Migrating and the Migrant Labour Market: An Economic Motivation Assessment………………………………………………………………………….49 iv Division of Labour Dynamics in the Ethnic Economy………………………..……52 Social Networks as Facilitators of Economic Migration…………………………...53 The Ethnic Economy as an Economic Motivation to Migrate……………………...55 The Economic Motivation to Stay in the Destination Country……………………..59 The Economic Motivations to Return………………………………………………59 Non-Economic Motivations………………………………………………………………61 Non-Economic Motivations to Migrate…………………………………………….62 Cultural Capital as a Non-Economic Motivation to Migrate…………………….....63 Migrant Identity as a Non-Economic Motivation to Migrate………………………64 Social Capital & Social Networks as a Non-Economic Motivation to Migrate……66 The Ethnic Economy as a Non-Economic Motivation to Migrate…………………69 The Non-Economic Motivation to Stay in the Destination……………………...…70 The Non-Economic Motivations to Return…………….………………………………73 Concluding Remarks & Research Questions………….…………………………………….74 Chapter 3: Methodology……...………………………………………….………………..76 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………76 Biography…………………………………………………………………………………...77 Poles in Cardiff?: Research Location Review………………………………………………78 Contextualising the Sample for the Thesis………………………………………………….83 Methods Employed during Fieldwork………………………………………………………89 Case Study: Ethnographic Participant Observation…………………….………………...89 Semi-Structured Interviews………………………………………………………………92 Interviews: Phase 1…………………………………………………………………...93 Interviews: Phase 2…………………………………………………………………...94 Analysis of the Qualitative Data…………………………………………………..….96 Questionnaires……………….……………………………………………………………98 Secondary Sources………………………………………………………………………100 Limitations of the fieldwork……………………………………………………………….102 Generalisability………………………………………………………………………….102 Choosing an Interview Type…………………….………………………………………104 Reflexivity, Positionality & Interviewer Bias…………………………………………...105 Access to Participants…………………………………………………………………...108 Ethics………………………………………………………………………………………111 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………111 Chapter 4: The Economic Motivations of the Polish Migrants in the Ethnic Economy 113 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..113 The Emergence of Migrant Trajectories in the Ethnic Economy………………………….114 The Ethnic Entrepreneur Trajectory……………………………………………………….115 v Original Migration Motivation………………………………………………………….116 Social Networks Utilised Prior to Self-Employment…………………………………...116 Transnational Friend…………………….………………………………………….117 Transnational Family…………………….……………………………………….…117 Pre- Entrepreneurship Employment…………………………………………………….118 The Role of Human Capital……………………………………………………………..119 Starting a Business……………………………………………………………………...120 Social Networks Utilised by Entrepreneurs…………………………………………….122 Social Networks for Business Finance Acquisition……..………………………….122 Social Networks for Co-Ethnic Labour Recruitment………………………………123 Social Networks and Building the Co-Ethnic Consumer Base……………………..127 Future Plans……………………………………………………………………………..128 The Co-Ethnic Employee (workers) Trajectory…………………………………………...129 Original Migration Motivation………………………………………………………….130 Social Network Usage…………………………………………………………………..132 Transnational Friend……………………………………………...…………………132 Employment Experience of Co-Ethnic Workers………………………………………..133 Human Capital Development…………………………………………………………...134 Future Plans……………………………………………………………………………..135 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………136 Chapter 5: The Economic Motivations of the Polish Migrants in the Non-Ethnic Economy……………………………………………………….…………………………..138 Introduction……………….………………………………………………………………..138 The Emergence of Migrant Trajectories in the Non-Ethnic Economy…………………….139 The Careerist Trajectory…………………………………………………………………...139 Original Migration Motivation………………………………………………………….141 National Economy………..…………………………………………………………141 Pull…………………………………………………………………………………..142 Social Networks…………………………………………………………………………142 Transnational Family………………………………………………………………..143 Transnational Friend………………………………………………………………...143 Employment……………………………………………………………………………..144 Hotel……………………………………………………………………………….145 Restaurant…………………………………………………………………………145 Future Plans……………………………………………………………………………..147 The Linguist Trajectory……………………………………………………………………149 Original Migration Motivation………………………………………………………….150 Social Network Usage…………………………………………………………………..151 Employment…………………………………………………………………………….152 Human Capital Development…………………………………………………………...154 vi Future Plans……………………………………………………………………………..155 The Credentialist Trajectory……………………………………………………………….156 Original Migration Motivation………………………………………………………….157 Social Network