Representations of the Dead: Cultures of Memorialisation in Early Modern England, 1660–1770 Sarah Jensen PhD University of York Department of History October 2019 1 Abstract This thesis explores the relationship between the voices and representations of the dead, urbanity and civility in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England. It brings together two previously separated studies of death: church monuments and ghost stories. These materials used representations of the dead to communicate social values and ideals to the living. They were presented as policing morals and promoting concepts of civility, community and sociability as virtuous characteristics and beliefs. This study combines quantitative and qualitative research to assess a ‘chronology of commemoration’. The evidence collected in this study challenges previous ideas about the dead retreating from early modern society. First, there was an increased proliferation of both monuments and ghost stories from 1660 to 1770. Second, this thesis traces the changes made to the language of memorialisation and the language of ghost stories to reveal how the living reshaped the dead to mirror changing cultural opinions on virtue and vice. These changes reflected shifts to the cultural ideals connected with civility and the rise of polite society in early modern England. Far from being removed from society, the dead were ever present. They continued to do cultural work as tools for the living to negotiate and establish their identities, beliefs and overall sense of belonging. 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 8 Author's Declaration 9 Introduction 10 Chapter 1: The Exemplary Dead: A Study of Urban Church Monuments, 1660–1770 27 Chapter 2: City Histories and Church Monument Statistics 65 Chapter 3: The Language of Memorialisation: How the Dead Taught the Living to be Exemplary 124 Section 1: The Memorialisation of Charity in the ‘Age of Benevolence’ 127 Section 2: The ‘great effect of friendship is beneficence’: Constructing a Virtuous Friendship in Early Modern Commemoration 156 Section 3: ‘Being more useful in my generation’: Usefulness as an Urban Virtue 178 Section 4: ‘Affection’ and ‘Tender’: The Language of Emotion in Eighteenth-Century Epitaphs 182 Chapter 4: The ‘verbose, didactic, and unconciliating’ Dead: An Introduction to Ghostly Voices in English Society, 1660–1770 200 Chapter 5: Glanvill’s The Drummer of Tedworth 215 Chapter 6: Making a History of the Fictional Ghost 224 Section 1: Bateman’s Ghost and Political Engagement 226 Section 2: A Reimagination of A True Relation of the Apparition of one Mrs. Veal 244 Section 3: Ghosts, Morality, and Defamation 260 Chapter 7: The Cock Lane Ghost: A re-examination of the banishment of the ghost from reality into fiction 289 Conclusion 301 Bibliography 323 3 Lists 1. List 1: List of Antiquarian Sources by City 33 2. List 2: List of Bristol churches that have since been demolished, closed or deconsecrated 76 Tables 1. Table 1: Number of parish churches 1660–1770 and number of parish churches in service today, displayed alongside the estimated population size of each urban centre c. 1660 and 1770 57 2. Table 2: The total number of church monuments in each urban centre, including the total numbers of standing, wall-mounted, floor slab memorials and those found only in antiquarian sources 58 3. Table 3: Total number of person or persons commemorated in urban church monuments from 1660 to 1770 59 4. Table 4: The combined statistics from all six urban centres: socio-economic/status social identifiers on urban church monuments from 1660 to 1770 60 5. Table 5: Number of church monuments per Bath parish church, 1660-1770 66 6. Table 5.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for Bath Abbey 66 7. Table 5.2: Socio-economic/status titles on Bath church monuments from 1660 to 1770 73 8. Table 6: Number of church monuments per Bristol parish church 75 9. Table 6.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for Bristol Cathedral 77 10. Table 6.2: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Mary Redcliffe 77 11. Table 6.3: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. James 78 12. Table 6.4: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Philip and St. Jacob 79 13. Table 6.5: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Thomas 80 14. Table 6.6: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Stephen’s 80 15. Table 6.7: Socio-economic/status titles on Bristol church monuments from 1660 to 1770 86 16. Table 7: Number of church monuments per Hull parish church 87 17. Table 7.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for Hull Minster [Holy Trinity] 88 18. Table 7.2: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Mary 89 19. Table 7.3: Socio-economic/status titles on Hull church monuments from 1660 to 1770 95 20. Table 8: Number of church monuments per Leeds parish church 96 21. Table 8.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. John 97 22. Table 8.2 The year and type of reconstruction works for Holy Trinity 98 4 23. Table 8.3: Socio-economic/status titles on Leeds church monuments from 1660 to 1770 103 24. Table 9: Number of church monuments per Newcastle parish church 104 25. Table 9.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for Newcastle Cathedral 105 26. Table 9.2: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. John 106 27. Table 9.3: The year and type of reconstruction works for St. Andrews 107 28. Table 9.4: Socio-economic/status titles on Newcastle church monuments from 1660 to 1770 111 29. Table 10: Number of church monuments per York parish church 113 30. Table 10.1: The year and type of reconstruction works for York parish churches 114 31. Table 10.2: Socio-economic/status titles on York church monuments from 1660 to 1770 119 32. Table 11: ETSC keyword occurrences in title and content, 1660–1770 209 Graphs 1. Graph 1: The distribution of church monuments erected in each urban centre between 1660 and 1770 61 2. Graph 2: Total number of urban church monuments in all six urban centres, 1660–1770 62 3. Graph 3: Total number of individuals commemorated in urban church monuments, 1660–1770 63 4. Graph 4: Social and occupation title in urban church monuments from 1660 to 1770 64 5. Graph 5: The number of church monuments erected in Bath, 1660–1770 71 6. Graph 5.1: The number of individuals commemorated in Bath church monuments, 1660–1770 72 7. Graph 6: The number of church monuments erected in Bristol, 1660–1770 84 8. Graph 6.1: The number of individuals commemorated in Bristol church monuments, 1660–1770 85 9. Graph 7: The number of church monuments erected in Hull, 1660–1770 93 10. Graph 7.1: The number of individuals commemorated in Hull church monuments, 1660–1770 94 11. Graph 8: The number of church monuments erected in Leeds, 1660–1770 101 12. Graph 8.1: The number of individuals commemorated in Bristol church monuments, 1660–1770 102 13. Graph 9: The number of church monuments erected in Leeds, 1660–1770 109 14. Graph 9.1: The number of individuals commemorated in Newcastle church monuments, 1660–1770 110 15. Graph 10: The number of church monuments erected in York, 1660–1770 117 5 16. Graph 10.1: The number of individuals commemorated in York church monuments, 1660–1770 118 17. Graph 11: EEBO occurrence of ‘apparition’ in printed documents, 1660–1700 210 18. Graph 11.1: EEBO occurrence of ‘spirit’ in printed documents, 1660–1700 211 19. Graph 11.2 EEBO occurrence of ‘ghost’ in printed documents, 1660–1700 212 20. Graph 12: ECCO frequency of documents (per year) 213 21. Graph 12.1: ECCO: Popularity: percentage of documents printed within that year containing the word 214 Photographs and Illustrations 1. Figure 1. Milner Family floor slab (d. 1659-1761), Leeds Minster, Leeds. 43 2. Figure 2. Elevated wall-mounted monument of William Whitehead (d. 1711) St. Mary Radcliff, Bristol. 43 3. Figure 3. Elevated wall-mounted monument of the Ford Family (d. 1733-1743), Bath Abbey, Bath. 44 4. Figure 3.1. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Francis (d. 1745) and Pricilla Ford (d. 1749), Bath Abbey, Bath. Reproduced by permission of Bath Abbey Archives. 44 5. Figure 4. Elevated wall-mounted monument of the Ford Family (d. 1733-1743), Bath Abbey, Bath 139 6. Figure 5. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Henry Dighton (d. 1741), St James, Bristol 145 7. Figure 6. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Jeremiah (d. 1714) and Mary Smyth (d. 1742), Hull Minster, Hull. 149 8. Figure 7. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Katherine Coppinger (d. 1763), St. Michael York (left) and standing wall-mounted monument of Elizabeth Towgood (d. 1767), Bristol Cathedral, Bristol (right). 155 9. Figure 8. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Elizabeth Hutchinson [Waldo] (d.1763), Bath Abbey, Bath. Reproduced by permission of Bath Abbey Archives. 172 10. Figure 9. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Elizabeth Winckley (d. 1756), Bath Abbey, Bath. Reproduced by permission of Bath Abbey Archives. 174 11. Figure 10. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Mary Pickering (d. 1748), St. Michael-le-Belfry, York. 176 12. Figure 11. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Anthony Lambert (d. 1688), Hull Minster, Hull. 182 13. Figure 12. Floor slab of John Teshmaker (d. 1713), Bath Abbey, Bath 188 14. Figure 13. Elevated wall-mounted monument of Elizabeth Morrison (d. 1738) Bath Abbey 191 15. Figure 14. Floor slab of Anne Norton (d. 1759) floor slab, St.