The Legal Aspects of Cybercrime in Nigeria: An Analysis with the UK Provisions BY CHIBUKO RAPHAEL IBEKWE A Thesis Submitted to the School of Law, University of Stirling for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) JULY 2015 Abstract Cybercrime offences know no limits to physical geographic boundaries and have continued to create unprecedented issues regarding to the feasibility and legitimacy of applying traditional legislations based on geographic boundaries. These offences also come with procedural issues of enforcement of the existing legislations and continue to subject nations with problems unprecedented to its sovereignty and jurisdictions. This research is a critical study on the legal aspects of cybercrime in Nigeria, which examines how laws and regulations are made and applied in a well-established system to effectively answer questions raised by shortcomings on the implementation of cybercrime legislations, and critically reviews various laws in Nigeria relating or closely related to cybercrime. This research will provide insight into current global cybercrime legislations and the shortfalls to their procedural enforcement; and further bares the cybercrime issues in Nigeria while analysing and proffering a critique to the provisions as provided in the recently enacted Nigerian Cybercrime (Prohibition and Prevention) Act 2015, in contradistinction to the existing legal framework in the United Kingdom and the other regional enactments like the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, African Union Convention on Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection 2014, and the ECOWAS Directive on Cybercrime 2011. ii Acknowledgement I express my special appreciation and thanks to my supervisor Dr David McArdle. You have been a tremendous mentor for me. Thank you for your continuous encouragement and for allowing me to grow as a research scholar. Your advices have been invaluable. I am inesti- mably indebted to you. Special thanks to Mr T. George-Maria Tyendezwa, CFE (Head of the Nigerian Computer Crime Prosecution Unit). Your contribution to this research, and also throughout the entire legislative process for the Nigerian Cybercrime Act 2015 has been wonderful. I gratefully acknowledge the members of my PhD examination committee (Professor Chris Gale, Profes- sor Richard Haynes, and Dr Thomas Margoni) for their time and valuable feedback on a pre- liminary version of this thesis. A special thanks to my wife, Dr Maryrose Ibekwe for her continued support and understand- ing throughout the period of this research. I appreciate all your efforts. To my lovely children, Zikora, Dumebi and Maya… I love you guys so much. Thank you for being the best children, always cheering daddy up. And for my brother, Clement (Obisho), thank you for your con- tinued support. I cannot thank you enough for encouraging me throughout this experience. Words cannot express how grateful I am to my mother and father for their prayers and all of the sacrifices that they’ve made on my behalf. Finally I thank my God (my good Father) and blessed mother (Virgin Mary) for letting me through all the difficulties. I have experienced Your guidance day by day. Chibuko Raphael Ibekwe iii Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. iv Chapter One: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 1.1 Defining Cybercrime ............................................................................................. 10 1.2 The Research Aims ................................................................................................ 16 1.3 Methodology of the Study and Structure ............................................................... 17 Chapter Two: THE NIGERIAN CYBER-PLURALISM EXPERIENCE ........................ 22 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 22 2.2 What is Legal Pluralism? ....................................................................................... 25 2.3 Pluralisms in the Nigeria Cybercriminal Law ....................................................... 31 2.3i Statutory Pluralism............................................................................................. 32 2.3ii Investigative and Prosecutorial Pluralism .......................................................... 35 2.3iia Attorney-General ........................................................................................ 37 2.3iia1 Power to Institute and Undertake Criminal Proceedings ......................... 37 2.3iia2 Power to Takeover and Continue Proceedings ........................................ 39 2.3iia3 Power to Discontinue ............................................................................... 40 2.3iib Police .......................................................................................................... 43 2.3iic Private Persons ........................................................................................... 47 2.3iid Special Prosecutors ..................................................................................... 49 2.3iie Military ....................................................................................................... 51 2.4 Jurisdictional Pluralism ......................................................................................... 51 2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 53 Chapter Three: OFFENCES AGAINST THE STATE ..................................................... 55 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 55 3.2 Offences against the Critical National Infrastructure ............................................ 58 3.3 Cyber-Terrorism Offences ..................................................................................... 70 3.3i Metamorphosis of Terrorism and Cyberterrorism ............................................. 73 3.3ii Elements of Cyber-Terrorism ............................................................................ 77 3.3iii Critical Infrastructure offences and Cyberterrorism Differentiated ............... 82 3.3iiia Intention ...................................................................................................... 83 3.3iiib Motivation .................................................................................................. 84 3.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 86 iv Chapter Four: OFFENCES AGAINST CONFIDENTIALITY, INTEGRITY AND AVAILABILITY OF COMPUTER DATA AND SYSTEMS ........................................... 89 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 89 4.2 Illegal Access ......................................................................................................... 90 4.2i Hacking .............................................................................................................. 93 4.2ii Hacking with the intent of obtaining computer data, securing access to any program, commercial or industrial secrets or confidential information ....................... 97 4.2iii Hacking while using a device to avoid detection or identification ................ 99 4.3 Illegal Interception ............................................................................................... 103 4.4 Data Interference ................................................................................................. 110 4.5 System Interference ............................................................................................. 114 4.6 Misuse of Devices ............................................................................................... 121 4.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 125 Chapter Five: CYBERFRAUD AND OTHER RELATED OFFENCES ...................... 127 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 127 5.2 Computer-related Fraud ....................................................................................... 128 5.2i Things Capable of Being Stolen: Computer Data/Document? ........................ 136 5.2ii Computer Fraud by false representation .......................................................... 139 5.2iii Computer Fraud by failing to disclose information ..................................... 141 5.2iv Computer Fraud by abuse of position .......................................................... 144 5.2v The Elements of Computer-related Fraud ........................................................ 145 5.3 Computer-related Forgery ................................................................................... 146 5.4 Offences related to the Infringement of Copyrights and other related Rights ..... 153 5.4i Internet and Copyright ....................................................................................