Navigation, Commercial Exchange and the Problem of Long- Distance Control in England and the English East India Company, 1673-1755 Jason Grier A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Science and Technology Studies York University Toronto, Ontario March 2018 © Jason Grier 2018 Abstract In this dissertation I address the related problems of expertise and long-distance control in the context of British navigation and the bureaucratic practices of the English East India Company. Expertise, in particular, is used as a framework from which I build outward to establish a stronger understanding of commercial trade, the circulation of knowledge and, most crucially, the place of the metropole. The first half of this dissertation introduces expertise and long-distances control and puts the concepts into historical context through the example of navigation between 1673 and 1755. Navigation is illustrative of the problem of expertise because it was a contentious subject at the time and, therefore, the contemporary debates can be followed. Expertise is a crucial problem because it directly addresses power and who controls knowledge. Thus, the question of navigational expertise ties directly to the problem of long-distance control. Therefore, my dissertation begins by moving outward from navigational instruction at the Royal Mathematical School to the practice of navigation on Edmond Halley’s first Paramore voyage. In the context of global commercial exchange, long-distance control became an increasing priority for those who sought to assert such control from a presumed centre onto agents around the globe. As such, the second half of the dissertation continues to follow actors further away from London with the setting moving to India and China where I contrast the idea of long-distance control with the reality. In practice the East India Company had little ability to impose itself on either its own employees or on the peoples with whom the Company wished to trade. Instead, the Company’s efforts often drew attention to its ignorance of Asian trade and served to underline its weakness in the first part of the eighteenth century. The dissertation concludes by questioning the notion of the metropole and the periphery in the history of science and suggests an inversion of the traditional locations, with London now a periphery rather than centre, a state of affairs more in line with the situation at the time. ii Acknowledgements Larry Stewart introduced me to the history of science and nearly a decade later his influence continues to shape my approach. This dissertation would not exist without him. Ernie Hamm was the definition of an ideal supervisor. He provided support, advice and direction when needed while allowing me the freedom to sort my ideas out on my own. My dissertation committee of Bernie Lightman and Jamie Elwick carefully read multiple drafts of the dissertation and provided valuable feedback. Bernie was involved from the outset and has been a crucial source of support for the last six years. Jamie was a source of support and friendship throughout the doctoral process, but also deserves special recognition for stepping in to join my dissertation committee at a late stage and going above-and-beyond the call of duty. His careful reading and valuable interventions greatly strengthened the final product. More generally, his writing group helped to keep me on task. Simon Schaffer has been invaluable to the development of this dissertation. As the external examiner his thoughtful and generous commentary of the thesis fundamentally clarified the ideas I had laboured to express. At the beginning of the research stage Simon enabled me to spend a year as a visiting student in the Department of the History and Philosophy of Science, Cambridge and the breadth and depth of his knowledge pointed me in critical directions when I was just figuring out what the project was. Margaret Schotte was exemplary as an examiner of the dissertation and her expert knowledge will continue to be critical as I continue forward in my academic career. Though they were not involved in the dissertation in any official capacity, Richard Dunn and Rebekah Higgitt offered much appreciated advice about the history of navigation. Richard Dunn was particularly generous with his time. iii A great number of individuals at York University, the University of Cambridge, and the University of Saskatchewan and elsewhere have supported me over the years as teachers, colleagues, and friends. Julia Bewcyk, Amy Bewcyk, Dan Brielmaier, Susannah Brower, Angela Cope, Jennifer Gilchrist, Paul Greenham, Erin Grosjean, Edward Jones-Imhotep, Rich Jarrell, Eileen Kim, Nanna Lüders Kaalund, Kelly Ladd, Michael Laurentius, Hélène Mialet, Aryn Martin, Ali McMillan, Cam Murray, Elizabeth Neswald, Chris Phillips, Kristen Schranz, Efram Sera-Shriar, Joan Stiegerwald, Jeffrey Wajsberg, and Beth Watkins made my time Toronto more enjoyable and intellectually enriching. I would like to thank Leah Astbury, Toby Bryant, Jenny Bulstrode, Andrew Buskell, Margaret Carlyle, Charlotte Connelly, Seb Falk, Meira Gold, James Hull, Nick Jardine, Anna Jones, Francis Neary, Kathryn Schoefert, Andreas Sommer for making me feel welcome in Cambridge. In Saskatchewan, Gordon DesBrisay, Erika Dyck, Sheila Gibbons, Jim Handy, Simone Horwitz, Chris Kent, Frank Klaassen, Marc MacDonald, Lisa Smith, and Sharon Wright provided important support and friendship at the beginning of my academic ventures. Finally, I wish to thank my What If Sports friends, especially Justin Bender. The librarians and archivists at the British Library; the Cambridge University Library; the Caird Library, National Maritime Museum; the London Metropolitan Library; the Pepys Library, Magdalene College; and the Whipple Library, Cambridge were unfailingly helpful and ensured their libraries were pleasant places in which to work. In Toronto the Scott, Steacie and Gerstein libraries enabled me to access the books I needed to complete my dissertation. I would also like to thank the Deer Park branch of the Toronto Public Library where much of this dissertation was written and the Toronto Public Library more generally for keeping me supplied in non-academic reading. iv Financial support for my doctoral studies was provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Canada and York University. The support and benefits, both material and otherwise, provided by CUPE 3903 cannot be overstated and without which graduate school at York University might well have been untenable. Moreover, CUPE 3903 has been at the forefront of the resistance to the neoliberal corporatization of the university and has consistently sought to prevent the destruction of education at the hands of a short-sighted administration concerned only with increasing profits. I do not extend any credit or thanks to the administrators of York University who are actively dismantling the very aspects of the university that made it attractive to me in the first place. As I submit this dissertation in the midst of a work stoppage I can only hope they fail in their designs. Sue Reeves opened her home to me in Cambridge. Linda Mead and Ian Feltham, meanwhile, made my frequent trips to London possible and pleasurable as they provided me with a home away from home. I cannot fully express how much I appreciate the home-cooked meals, the long discussions about the history, geography, and architecture of London, help navigating the city, and suggestions of sights to see and things to do. My family has supported me throughout my long academic journey and in life more generally and I wish to thank my parents, Mike and Judy, my siblings Christopher, Callie, and Vanessa and my grandparents Roy and Ruth Grier and Scotty and Curly Wiltermuth. Most importantly, Laura Mitchell has offered years of love and support even though she did not do any typing. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... ix Note on Sources ..............................................................................................................................x Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Historiography ...........................................................................................................................2 The Problem Defined .................................................................................................................7 Chapters and Sources ..............................................................................................................17 Part One: London ........................................................................................................................25